Table of Figures of Speech and Emphasis

Strange Figures

by James Neil

Estimated reading time: 9 minutes

An excerpt from:

PART I.

“I have used similitudes by the hand of the prophets,”¹ cries the Lord, and in doing so uses a “similitude,” for “the hand” here does not mean a literal hand at all, but is employed as a figure for “the ministry” of the prophets.  The extent to which He has so used “similitudes “ has been fully realized by few.  The East, be it known, is the very home of flowery and figurative language.  In Palestine, a knowledge of colloquial Arabic soon reveals the astonishing and charming fact, that the ordinary conversation of the humblest and most uneducated of the people, who can neither read nor write and who have not the scientific knowledge of a well‑taught English child of seven years of age, abounds with figures of speech which, in the West, would be thought worthy of a great poet.  Take the

STREET CRIES OF JERUSALEM

as a striking instance of this delightful feature; and contrast them with the coarse, hoarse, meaningless cries of our far more highly educated street hawkers.  Here comes the cake‑seller, calling out, “Delicate morsels, buy, O ye children;” and next the vendor of roses, sold in large quantities to distil for perfume, with the cry, “Roses, roses of many odors.”   The sweetmeat man announces his wares with, “Peace to the throat! palm candy;” while he with melons shouts, “O melon pips‑solace of the uneasy.”   The woman with water‑cresses and lily‑roots sings in musical tones, “Daughters of the river‑buy them, buy them.”   Here comes the baker with his tray of bread, crying, “O Thou All‑bountiful! O God! fresh bread! O Thou All‑bountiful!”  The water‑seller tinkles his little copper bowls, or drinking cups, and calls to the passers‑by, “O all ye thirsty ones, come to the water!” or quotes a verse of the Koran which promises heaven to those who give a cup of cold water to the thirsting.  The hawker of henna, the fashionable yellowish‑brown staining for the nails‑a paste made from the leaves of Lawsonia alba, probably the “camphire” of our Bible (Song of Sol. 1:14; 4:13), which has clusters of white, highly perfumed flowers lifts up his voice with, “O henna, henna, fragrance of the fifth paradise! flowers of henna!” The woman with a basket of mulberries on her head thus recommends them, “Sweet, sweet, and black are my mulberries, now shall hhalaweh [sweetmeat] sellers die,” that is, for want of any customers to buy their wares now she has brought her mulberries!  From another fruit‑stall you may hear equally figurative language:  “Dates, dates of the heart! but not for the avaricious;” while stoneless raisins are offered as “Daughters of Damascus.”  Mrs. Finn heard a woman, vending the produce of her vineyard, cry, “Lovely grapes, lovely grapes! Oh how often have the doves made their nests amongst them!” and again, “Look!  They are as good as those of Damascus which men call ‘maiden’s cheeks.’”  The very beggar calls out “Charity, Charity, God will repay it,” and then, “May thy mouth be always filled with sugar,” to which those who refuse an alms invariably say, “Pass on! God will give thee.”  This highly tropical language meets you everywhere, even on the most prosaic occasions, but especially when an Easterner feels and expresses himself strongly.  The humblest and poorest of the people when, like our Savior, they desire to administer a veiled, delicate, but forcible reproof, will speak to you in parables, and that often with great readiness and exquisite skill.

A CHIEF FEATURE OF THE BIBLE.

Now the Bible, on its human side and as to the whole letter of it, is entirely an Eastern book.  It was written in the East, about events which happened in the East, by Eastern penmen, and at first, and as to much of it, during long ages, for Eastern readers only.  It follows as a matter of necessity, that both in thought and language it must speak as men speak in the East.  It is therefore most natural and interesting to observe, that, next to a sublime simplicity which is without a rival in any other writing, nothing distinguishes Holy Scripture more, from a literary standpoint, than its exuberant use of highly figurative language.  The modes of thought and speech in Palestine being such as I have said, the Bible could not possibly be genuine if it were otherwise.  Countless surface difficulties which are alleged by the free-thinking objector, or which force themselves on the sensitive conscience of the believer are due to this simple cause.  Take an instance of each out of a thousand others.

Let us glance first at a free‑thinking objection.  “Where,” cries the atheist triumphantly, “is it spoken by the prophets,

HE SHALL BE CALLED A NAZARENE.”

Nowhere is Nazareth so much as mentioned in the Old Testament, and Jews as well as atheists, taking this literally, triumphantly point to an error in the Gospel.  But observe the true answer.  In thus claiming a distinct fulfillment of prophecy in Matthew 2:23, the apostle uses a double figure.  First, Enallage, or Exchange, where “he shall be called,” or “his name shall be called,” is put for “he shall be.” This is a common Hebrew idiom.  It occurs very strikingly in Isaiah 7:14, “shall call his name Emmanuel (God with us);” in Isaiah 9:6, “his name shall be called Wonderful, Counselor, Mighty God,” etc., and in Jeremiah 23:6, “He shall be called Jehovah Tsidkainu (Jehovah our Righteousness).”  Our Lord Jesus Christ has not borne these as His names, but He has borne them as His characteristics.  The idiom “to be called” means not only “to be” but “to be recognized and renowned as.”  It is therefore “He shall be a Nazarene.”  But to “be a Nazarene,” here is the figure of Metaphor, and means “to be like a Nazarene.”  Now the Nazarenes in our Lord’s day were despised, and held in great contempt, and treated as worthless and ignorant people.  Nathaniel, who was a good man, and lived at Cana only some six miles away, and therefore well knew the village where Jesus was brought up, cries, “Can any good thing come out of Nazareth?” (John 1:46)  Several of the prophets tell us of the contempt and shame that would cover Messiah, that, as Isaiah puts it, “He is despised and rejected of men, a very sorrowful man [literally “a man of sorrows”] and acquainted with grief, and like one causing men to hide their faces from him; He is despised, and we esteem Him not.”  (Isaiah 53:3)  Hence how clear is the fulfillment claimed by Matthew, in allusion to the character of Nazarenes in his day, “He shall be called “ (that is, “He shall be counted as a Nazarene.”  (Matt.  2:23)  It is as though people had said of a child long years ago, that he would be said to be a wild and wandering man, and I claimed the fulfillment of this prediction by saying “They said he would be counted a Bohemian,” or “They said he would be counted an Arab,” for while they did not use either of these expressions, they said he would be like what a Bohemian or an Arab is like; and this in highly figurative language is saying just the same thing.  Had our Blessed Lord lived in His own city Bethlehem, or even in Judea, He would have been known and esteemed as of the lineage of David; but brought up in Nazareth, in “Galilee of the foreign nations,” or “heathen Galilee,” in the providence of God He came through this circumstance to be looked down upon and utterly despised as, ”Jesus of Nazareth,” or as it should be, “Jesus the Nazarene.”  Now we have seen it was “spoken by the prophets,” that Christ, during His ministry on earth, should bear, a name of shame and contempt; and Matthew, therefore, strikingly sums up and expresses this in the highly figurative but strictly accurate words, “And he [Joseph] came and dwelt in a town called Nazareth: that it might be fulfilled which was, spoken by the prophets, He [Christ, the Messiah] shall be called a Nazarene.”

Again, to deal with a case of sensitive conscience, when I was a child, I felt

A TERRIBLE DIFFICULTY

in those words of our Savior’s first sermon where we are told “to pluck out” our right eye and to “cut off” our right hand if they make us offend, and so to practice self mutilation. (Matt. 5:29, 30)  Still greater the difficulty seemed in verses 39, 40, 41, where we are told to turn the left cheek to be smitten to him who smites us on the right; to give to “any man” our “coat” who rightly or wrongly sues us and takes away our “ shirt; “and to go two miles for “whomsoever” may force us with unpaid and compulsory labor to go one.  Greatest of all seemed the difficulty of verse 42, which tells us to give to everyone who asks, and not to turn away from any borrower, though if the words are to be taken literally, as I thought, a man could not “provide for his own and specially for those of his own house,” and so would have “denied the faith” and be “worse than an unbeliever,” (I Tim.  5:8) to say nothing of his often giving money to those who would apply it to wrong and even criminal purposes!  In my young heart, taking these words, as I did, in their literal Western sense, and finding them in a plain and most practical discourse, I was led to reject the teaching of Christ as unreal, unpractical, and even immoral!  I know now that these forms of expression are highly figurative, being nothing less than the powerful figure of Hyperbole, or Exaggeration, and mean no more than that we are strongly to avoid a litigious spirit where our own rights are called in question, that we are not to give way to bitter resentment in regard to personal injuries, and that we are to be very ready to lend a sympathizing ear and a helping hand to the suffering and deserving poor.

Having shown the importance of understanding figurative language, let us now ask

“WHAT IS A FIGURE?”

Its Greek name, a “trope,” from the Greek word trepo, “I turn,” well expresses the fact that it is the turning a word or words away from its common, ordinary meaning.  In this sense it signifies a word or words put in the place of another word or other words.  This is done by way of illustration and generally on the principle of resemblance.  The name “figure” comes from the Latin word figura, “a shape,” or “form.”   “A word,” says Macbeth, “is used figuratively when it is brought forward in a form, construction, or application different from its simplest form, construction, or application.  Thus, when we speak of the head of an animal, we use the word `head’ in its literal and first signification, as meaning that part of the body in which are placed the eyes, nose, and so forth; but when we speak of the head of an army, we think of the resemblance between an army and an animal’s body, as to the highest or most prominent part in the animal and in the army, and then we apply the name of that part of the animal to the similar the force inherent in this figure, his strong sense of personal weakness and self-distrust in view of the onerous task of being “a prophet unto the nations,” and that with so difficult arid unpopular a mission as “to root out and to pull down, and to ruin and to destroy, to build and to plant.”²

Footnotes:

1. Hosea 12:10. ↩︎
2. Jeremiah 1:10  This is of course a species of the figure of Enallage; or Exchange, to which I have already alluded, by which the active verb is put for “to declare a thing should be done.”   Thus what is here intended is that Jeremiah should “declare that the nations should be rooted out and pulled down, ruined and destroyed, built and planted.”  ↩︎

Specific Figures

Estimated reading time: 14 minutes

An excerpt from

God has declared that “all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, which is instruction in righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, thoroughly equipped for every good work” (II Timothy 3:16,17). Since we are dealing with the inspired Word of God, we should be very careful to apply logically and accurately the rules of grammar and language. One major area that is so often overlooked or misunderstood is the field of figures of speech. Many sincere believers, when confronted with a statement in the Bible that is obviously not true to fact, declare, “Oh, that’s only figurative”, as if it were of little importance. The reverse is true — it is not “only figurative” but that part of the Word that the Father wishes to emphasize. Figures of speech are legitimate departures from accepted grammatical forms in order to give emphasis to what has been written or spoken.

Search out the list of specific figures to see the emphasis of each particular one. Once you as a student begin to explore this field, you will want to say with Paul, “O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God! how unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past finding out!”

ANABASIS

Gradual Ascent

The figure of speech anabasis is so called when a writing ascends up step by step, with an increase of emphasis. Psalm 1 is a vivid example of this figure. “Blessed is the man -1) who walks not in the counsel of the ungodly, 2) nor stands in the way of sinners, 3) nor sits in the seat of the scornful.” Each phrase is successive in emphasis. Bullinger describes this verse in his Figures of Speech Used in the Bible as “the first continue in that mind, taking evil counsel. The second carry it out, as the principle of their walk. The third settle down in their evil, as on a seat.”[1] Another example is Zechariah 7:11, “But they refused to hearken, and pulled away the shoulder, and stopped their ears that they should not hear. Yea, they made their hearts as an adamant stone, lest they should hear the law, and the words which the Lord of hosts hath sent in his spirit by the former prophets…” This succession is a good description of the process that Israel went through to reject Jehovah and the law and the reason they ended up in captivity.

The figure is not only used to describe a negative downfall. It can be positive as well. Ephesians 2:5,6 says, “Even when we were dead in sins, 1) hath quickened us together with Christ, (by grace ye are saved) 2) And hath raised us up together, and 3) made us sit together in heavenly places in Christ Jesus:”

What is then the emphasis of this figure? I believe that the phrases in succession point to the very next sentence or phrase following the ascent like an arrow that points upward. What is important is not the arrow, but what it is pointing toward. In Psalm 1 the next sentence is, “his delight is in the law of the Lord…and whatsoever he does shall prosper.” In Zechariah 7, the next sentence is: “therefore came a great wrath from the Lord of hosts.” Ephesians 2:7 is “that in the ages to come he might show the exceeding riches of his grace in his kindness toward us through Christ Jesus.”

ALLEGORY

Normally, the definition of metaphor is similar to the following from “Silva Rhetoricae” (rhetoric.byu.edu): “A sustained metaphor continued through whole sentences or even through a whole discourse.” I believe that in terms of study of the Aramaic New Testament, this definition is too narrow. Especially in the Gospels, Jesus used examples which were not a whole story where every element was compared to something else. They were pithy short illustrations, usually from everyday life, that communicated a spiritual principle. There are several examples in the Sermon on the Mount:

Matthew 6:19, 20:

You should not place for yourself treasures on earth, where moth and rust corrupt and where thieves break in and steal.

But place for yourself treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust corrupt and where thieves do not break in and do not steal.

For where your treasure is, there is also your heart.

This is a comparison of having a “treasure room” in a house, which was a glorified closet and would be subject to be corrupted by insects, weather, such as rain leaking through the roof, or thieves breaking a hole in the mud walls. It was a common picture of a storage room in a home. The entire passage teaches the lesson that spiritual treasures are much more important than earthly wealth.

The emphasis in an allegory is on the comparative elements, but also on the moral of the illustration. In these verses, the concluding sentence has the emphasis: “for where your treasure is, there is also your heart.” In every allegory, the student should seek for this concluding remark or the lesson behind the illustration.

For further study, see the excerpt on allegory from Figures of Speech Used in the Bible by E.W. Bullinger.

CHIASMUS

Chiasmus, or introversion, is a figure of speech that has a very special emphasis and also pertains to the structure of a passage. There is a wonderful book that you can order from CBD or any bookstore that is called Chiasmus in the New Testament by Nils W. Lund. The entire book is full of examples of this figure of speech. When we see this figure, the point that is emphasized is in the middle phrase or phrases of the introversion, or as Lund puts it: “The centre is always the turning point.” If we used capital letters to describe a passage, the introversion would be ABCDDCBA. The phrases in “D” would be the ones that are emphasized.

The Sermon on the Mount in Matthew is full of this figure. Here are a few examples:

Matthew 3:5-11:

A Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.

B Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted.

C Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.

D Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled.

D Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy.

C Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God.

B Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of God.

A Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness’ sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.

The middle phrases of “D” are emphasized, and we see this is true because they are the main themes of the entire sermon–what is true righteousness and how to live it.

There is a chiasmus in Matthew 6:7-9 that emphasizes that living righteously is not to be like the hypocrites. Notice also how the center phrase is the turning point.

A But when ye pray, use not vain repetitions, as the heathen do:

B for they think that they shall be heard

C for their much speaking.

D Be not ye therefore like unto them:

C for your Father knoweth what things ye have need of,

B before ye ask him.

A After this manner therefore pray ye:

Matthew 6:24 is a chiasmus in one verse:

A No man can serve two masters,

B For either he will hate the one,

C And love the other;

C Or else he will hold to the one,

B And despise the other.

A Ye cannot serve God and mammon. 

The conclusion of Matthew 6 is a summary of the first part of the sermon.

A Therefore take no thought, saying, What shall we eat? or, What shall we drink? or, Wherewithal shall we be clothed? (For after all these things do the Gentiles seek:)

B for your heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of all these things.

C But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and his righteousness;

B and all these things shall be added unto you.

A Take therefore no thought for the morrow: for the morrow shall take thought for the things of itself. Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof.

The armor of God section in Ephesians 6 is a double chiasmus:

Eph 6:10-18

Finally, my brethren, be strong in the Lord, and in the power of his might.

Put on the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to stand

against the wiles of the devil.

For we wrestle not against flesh and blood,

but against principalities,

against powers,

against the rulers of the darkness of this world

against spiritual wickedness in high places.

Wherefore take unto you the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to withstand in the evil day, and having done all, to stand.

Stand therefore, having your loins girt about with truth,

and having on the breastplate of righteousness;

And your feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace;

Above all, taking the shield of faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the wicked.

And take the helmet of salvation,

and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God:

Praying always with all prayer and supplication in the Spirit, and watching thereunto with all perseverance and supplication for all saints;

Here’s a way to remember chiasmus:

ABC Intro- –D turns the point

CBA Version

EROTESIS

Rhetorical Question

An erotesis is a question that is not immediately answered. Bullinger categorizes questions into 19 different categories. I believe these are interesting to note the variety of the types of questions, but as far as the emphasis in a particular verse is concerned, there should be only be three categories of erotesis.

1) The first category includes all the questions that can be answered with an affirmative yes or no. One could say: “Absolutely yes!” or “Absolutely no!” or “of course!” In Aramaic, these questions are introduced by a small particle called lema which is sometimes not able to be translated. In the Aramaic Peshitta New Testament Translation these questions are noted in the footnotes as lema questions and then it is determined whether there should be a yes or no answer. Here are a few examples:

Matt 14:31: And immediately our Lord reached out his hand and grasped him and said to him, “Little of faith, why did you doubt?” The last phrase could also be translated “are you doubting?” Because Peter had begun to sink, it was an obvious answer “yes!”

Matt 25:9: These wise [virgins] answered and said, ‘Will there be enough for us and for you? This question was rhetorical for the foolish virgins with an obvious answer “no.”

Mark 2:19: Jesus said to them, “Are the guests of the wedding feast able to fast as long as the bridegroom is with them? No! This is even answered in the verse.

2) The second category are “questions to ponder.” They are questions that are used with the introductory words, “what”, “why”, “how”, “where” or “if” and the response generates thoughtful thinking. These questions do not have direct answers, but are pointed to cause the reader to think carefully on the subject and realize that God has the answer. The questions may cause awe, wonder, shame, fear, contemplation of some kind. The student should consider his or her own answer to the question. The emphasis is designed to make the reader stop and think and consider the subject closely.

One of the most dramatic passages of this category is in Romans 8:31-35. There are at least 7 rhetorical questions in these 5 verses. They are all “questions to ponder”.

1. What shall we then say to these things…?

2. If God be for us, who can be against us…?

3. He that spared not His own son …?

4. Who shall lay anything to the charge of God’s elect…?

5. Who is he that condemns?

6. Who [or what] shall separate us…?

7. [Shall] tribulation, or distress…?

Another vivid example of “questions to ponder” is in Job 38-41. There are 128 verses full of questions (Bullinger counted 40 questions in chapter 38 alone). Some are from the first category, but the majority are searching questions. God’s first question to Job is: “Who is this that darkens my counsel with words without knowledge?” Oh dear! We must think about this. “Where were you when I laid the earth’s foundation?…Who marked off its dimensions?…Who stretched a measuring line across it?” The obvious answer is that God created the heavens and earth and Job was no where to be found in that process. But the reason for using the questions is that they lead to the conclusion that as God is an absolutely unparalleled master when it comes to creating the heavens and earth, so He also is unparalleled in terms of our lives and even has the answers to the “why” of suffering and what to do about it. The questioning leads Job to “repent in dust and ashes” in chapter 40, verse 6. And his conclusion is: “I know that you can do all things; no plan of yours can be thwarted.”

3) The third category I call kema questions. This is from the Aramaic word kema, which means “how much more,” or “how many.” The emphasis of this type of rhetorical question is an affirmative answer. The question must always be turned around to the positive.

Luke 11:13: And if you who are evil know to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your Father from heaven give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him?” The emphasis would be to say, “your heavenly Father will absolutely give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him!”

John 13:14: If therefore I, your Lord and your Master, have washed your feet for you, how much more ought you to wash the feet of one another? We need to affirm in our hearts, “Yes, I will wash my friends’ feet because Jesus was my example!”

All three categories of erotesis are crucial when seeking to understand a passage of Scripture. The adventure is to seek for the proper answer and to find out what God’s answer would be!

ELLIPSIS

There are a large number of different kinds of ellipsis. We use it in ordinary speech every day in greeting one another, saying “Evening!” instead of “Good evening”. An ellipsis can be an omission of any word or phrase in the sentence. The most important point to remember is that the omitted words are what are emphasized. This becomes important in specific passages, because it is often not totally clear what the words are that are to be supplied.

John 8:37: I know that you [are] the seed of Abraham, but you are seeking to kill me, because you do not empty yourselves e[to make room] for my word.

Note that the emphasis is not on “seeking to kill me” but on making room for Jesus’ word. The Pharisees were so full of their own doctrine and teaching, that they had no room for anything different.

The student should seek to find the appropriate words that are missing from the sentence.

PARANOMASIA

 Paranomasia means simply, rhyming words. We would call it word-play. Many of the sayings of Jesus and the parables have this figure of speech. When you know what the rhyming words are in Aramaic, then you can see what is emphasized in the passage. The example used in this article in the parable of the Lost Sheep. The key words are “one” khad and “joy” khedwa. There is joy over the one sinner that repents.

Matt 18:12,13: If a man have an hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray (wekhad minnehon taey)

And if so be that he find it … he rejoices (khadey) more over that sheep than of the ninety-nine that went not astray (dela taain)

Luke 15:7: Likewise joy (khedwa) shall be in heaven over one sinner (kheda khatya) that repents.

Khatya and tae also rhyme — gone astray and sinner.

The emphasis is that finding ONE sinner that repents causes great JOY!! Truly the Lord is a good shepherd and continues to search out the lost. There is great rejoicing in heaven when one comes back to the fold.

Another paranomasia is in Matthew 6:28,29: Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow (shabhekhin)… even Solomon in all his glory (teshbokhteh) was not arrayed like one of these… Consider the ravens (orebhin)… and God feeds (merabbe) them. And which of you with taking thought (yaseph) can add to (oseph) his stature one cubit.

Mark 11:17:
My house shall be called of all nations the house of prayer (beth tzelutha yithqere) But ye have made it a den of thieve (mearta delestin). Prayer is contrasted with thieves.

Luke 12:33:
But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven…where no thief approacheth (qarebh), neither moth (ruqba) corrupteth (marqebh)

Luke 22:36:
For I say unto you, that his that is written must yet be accomplished in me (limesaph bi) …For the things concerning me have an end (diledili supha)…It is enough (sepheq).

Luke 12:32:
Fear not, little flock (maritha)
For it is your Father’s good pleasure (derae abukhon) to give you the kingdom.

Metonymy

by James Neil

Estimated reading time: 3 minutes

An excerpt from:

THE figure of Metonymy, or, as the word means, “change of name” is where one noun is put for another, or a pronoun is put for a noun, or a noun for a pronoun, where there is an intimate and settled relationship between the words thus exchanged. A few simple examples will best explain the meaning of this definition.

1. The place may be put for its inhabitants. “Woe to thee, Chorazin! Woe to thee, Bethsaida!” (Matt. 11:21), where Chorazin and Bethsaida are put for their respective inhabitants, because there is an intimate and settled relationship between a town and its inhabitants.

2. The effect may be put for the cause: “Jacob sware by the fear of his father Isaac” (Gen. 21:53), where “fear,” the effect, is put for “God,” the cause of that holy fear.

3. The leader may be put for his followers, or the teacher for his disciples, or the master for his servants. Thus Jesus says to Peter, “Get behind Me, Satan!” (Matt 16:23), where “Satan,” who had taught the Apostle to discourage Christ from suffering, is put for “Peter,” who for the time had allowed himself to be instigated by the Evil One. So the Lord Jesus cries, “Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou Me” (Acts 4:4, Acts 22:7), where the Savior is put for His poor, tried followers.

4. The symbol is put for that of which it is the badge. Thus Paul says of the civil magistrate, “he bears not the sword in vain “ (Romans 13:4), where “sword” is put for the magisterial authority of which, amongst the Romans, it was so eminently the badge, for, as I have shown on page 284, soldiers amongst that people, in our Savior’s time, answered to our police. Jesus describes Himself as “He that has the key of David” (Rev.3:7; see also Isaiah 22:22; Matt. 16:19; Rev. 1:18, Rev. 9:1, Rev. 20:1), where “ key “ is put for that government and power of which, amongst the Jews, it was the plain symbol, even as it is still throughout the East to this day.

5. The voice may be put for the person speaking. It is no mistake or inaccuracy, as some unacquainted with figures of speech have been tempted to suppose, when John, in the Revelation, says, “I turned to see the voice that spoke to me” (Revelation 1:12), but a bold and beautiful instance of Metonymy, where, because of the settled relationship between the “voice” and the person who utters the voice, the one can thus be put for the other.

Any thoughtful reader after a diligent search, which would prove as profitable as it would be interesting, could probably find for himself no less than forty distinct and delicate varieties of this important figure in the Bible, for it is of very frequent occurrence.

For twelve well‑marked species of Metonymy, some of very special importance, with numerous Scriptural examples, the reader is referred to the author’s Figurative Language Of the Bible, pp. 14‑19, James Nisbet & Co., 1892.

Figures of Speech
in Ephesians Chapter 1

Estimated reading time: 3 minutes

The Letter of Paul to the EPHESIANS

Ephesians 1 (ISV)

Greetings from Paul

¹From Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by God’s will, to his holy and faithful people in Ephesus who are in union with Christ Jesus. ²May grace and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ be yours!

The Many Blessings of Salvation

³May the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ be praised!¹ He has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing² in the heavenly realm, ⁴just as he chose us in him before the foundation of the world to be holy and blameless in his presence. In love ⁵he predestined us for adoption to himself through Jesus Christ, according to the pleasure of his will,^{3 6}so that we would praise⁴ his glorious grace that he gave⁵ us in the Beloved One. ⁷In him we have redemption through his blood,⁶ the forgiveness of our offenses, according to the riches⁷ of God’s⁸ grace ⁸that he lavished on us, along with all wisdom and understanding,^{9 9}when he made known to us the secret of his will.¹⁰ This was according to his plan that he set forth in Christ ¹⁰to usher in the fullness of the times¹¹ and to gather up all things in Christ, both things in heaven and things on¹² earth.

¹¹In Christ¹³ we were also chosen when we were set apart beforehand according to the purpose of the one who does everything according to the intention of his will.^{14 12}He did this so that we who had already fixed our hope on Christ might live for his praise and glory. ¹³You, too, have heard the word of truth¹⁵, the gospel of your salvation, and have believed in him. You were sealed in him with the promised Holy Spirit,^{16 14}who is the guarantee of our inheritance until the redemption of God’s own possession¹⁷, to his praise and glory.

Paul’s Prayer for the Ephesians

¹⁵Therefore, because I have heard about your faith in the Lord Jesus and your love for all the saints, ¹⁶I never stop giving thanks for you as I mention you in my prayers. ¹⁷I pray that the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father most glorious¹⁸, would give you a spirit of wisdom and revelation¹⁹ through knowing Christ. ¹⁸Then, with the eyes of your hearts²⁰ enlightened, you will know the hope of his calling, the riches of his glorious inheritance²¹ among the saints, ¹⁹and the unlimited greatness of his power for us who believe, according to the working of his mighty strength.^{22 20}He put this power to work in Christ when he raised him from the dead and seated him at his right hand²³ in the heavenly realm. ²¹He is far above every ruler, authority, power, dominion, and every name that can be named²⁴, not only in the present age but also in [the one]²⁵ to come. ²²God has put everything²⁶ under his feet²⁷ and has made him the head of everything for the good of the church, ²³which is his body,²⁸ the fullness of the one who fills²⁹ everything in every way.

Footnotes:

1. 1:3 Figure: benedictio, expression of feeling by giving a blessing ↩︎
2. 1:3 Figure: polyptoton, eulogetos…eulogesas…eulogia, emphasis on blessing ↩︎
3. 1:5 Figure: hypallage, “his pleasing will” see also v 9,11 ↩︎
4. 1:6 Lit. to the praise of ↩︎
5. 1:6 Figure: polyptoton, charitos…echaritosen, emphasis on grace  ↩︎
6. 1:7 Figure: metalepsis, blood put for blood-shedding put for what was accomplished by his death ↩︎
7. 1:7 Figure: anthropopatheia, riches attributed to God, idioma, riches stand for great quantity of something  ↩︎
8. 1:7 Lit. his ↩︎
9. 1:8 Figure: hendiadys, one thing meant – wise understanding ↩︎
10. 1:9 Figure: hypallage, “his secret purpose or will” ↩︎
11. 1:10 Figure: metonymy (of time) – stands for the ending of all history  ↩︎
12. 1:10 Figure: anaphora, emphasis on how ALL will be gathered up in Christ  ↩︎
13. 1:11 Lit. him; 1:11,13 Figure: repetitio, “in whom” emphasis on “in Christ”, 2x in v 13 ↩︎
14. 1:11 Figure: hypallage, “his intended will” ↩︎
15. 1:13 Figure: antimereia, “the true word”; also synecdoche, word stands for all revelation ↩︎
16. 1:13 Lit. the Spirit of promise, Figure: antimereia, “the promised Spirit”; also hyperbaton, exchange of word order emphasizes “Holy”  ↩︎
17. 1:14 Lit. of the possession, Figure: epitrechon, parenthesis explains that the Holy Spirit is a guarantee. ↩︎
18. 1:17 Lit. the Father of glory, Figure: antimereia, “the glorious Father”  ↩︎
19. 1:17 Figure: hendiadys, one thing meant, “wise revelation” ↩︎
20. 1:18 Figure: prosopopeia (personification); also hypocatastasis, heart = inner mind ↩︎
21. 1:18 Figure: antimereia, dual genitive, “glorious riches of his inheritance”; also, anthropopatheia, wealth and inheritance attributed to God; idioma, riches = plenty ↩︎
22. 1:19 Figure: antimereia, dual genitive, “mighty working of his strength”  ↩︎
23. 1:20 Figure: anthropopatheia, right hand; also hypocatastasis, right hand = place of blessing ↩︎
24. 1:21 Figure: polysyndeton, consider each kind of authority; also polyptoton, onomatos… onamazomenou, emphasis on every name ↩︎
25. 1:21 Figure: ellipsis, [the one] or [the age] ↩︎
26. 1:22 Figure: repetitio, panta, emphasis on everything ↩︎
27. 1:22 Figure: hypocatastasis, feet = dominion ↩︎
28. 1:23 Figure: metaphor, church represented by body  ↩︎
29. 1:23 Figure: polyptoton, pleroma…pleroumenou, emphasis on fullness; also homeopropheron, “p” pleroma, panta, pasin, pleroumenou ↩︎

Estimated reading time: 1 minute

An excerpt from:

Condescension

When God or Christ is spoken of as a Husbandman (i.e., by Synecdoche), or a vinedresser. See Isa. 5:1–9, John 15::1, Matt. 20:1–16.

As a Builder. Heb. 2:4; Heb. 11:10.

As a Warrior. Ex. 5:3. Ps. 45:3–5; Ps. 46:8-9; Ps. 46:76.

As a Counsellor. Isa. 9:6.

As a Physician. Ex. 15:26. Ps. 147:3.

As a Shepherd. Ps. 23 Ezek. 34:23; 37:24. Micah 5:4; Micah 7:14. Zech. 13:7. John 10:11. Heb. 13:20. 1 Pet. 2:25; 1 Pet. 5:4.

As a Father. Deut. 32:6. Ps. 68:5, 6. Isa. 64:8. Matt. 6:1, 6, 8, 9. Rom. 8:15. Heb. 12:5–10.

As a King, Prince, etc. Isa. 9:6; Isa. 55:4; Isa. 32:1; Isa. 33:22.

As a Spouse. Matt. 9:15; Matt. 25:1. Mark 2:19. Luke 5:34. John 3:29.

As a Witness. Isa. 43:10; Isa. 55:4. Jer. 29:23. Mal. 3:5. Rev. 1:5; Rev. 3:14. John 18:37.

Aramaic Peshitta New Testament
Appendix 2

Estimated reading time: 7 minutes

Excerpt from:

All language is ruled by laws, but to convey special emphasis of a word or group of words, these general laws of language are purposefully departed from, and other laws of language are invoked, giving the single word or group of words a new form. The Greeks called these departures from normal language use, schemata, meaning “change of forms”, from which the term “figure of speech” originated. A figure of speech is the term used to describe these changes. When a word or words fail to be true to fact, they are figures of speech and bring an added emphasis to the basic truth of a sentence.

The study of figures of speech has been difficult for the general reader, especially in relation to figures of speech in the Bible. There are three reasons: 1) the nomenclature uses Greek and Latin names, 2) the number and variety is extensive (Bullinger catalogued over 200, with many having 30-40 varieties), and 3) the classification system is not straightforward and clear, with many overlapping sections.

One of the most important insights that E. W. Bullinger had from Figures of Speech Used in the Bible is stated in the beginning note:

…whenever and wherever it is possible, the words of Scripture are to be understood literally, but when a statement appears to be contrary to our experience, or to known fact, or revealed truth; or seems to be a variance with the general teaching of the Scriptures, then we may reasonably expect that some figure is employed. And as it is employed only to call our attention to some specially designed emphasis, we are at once bound to diligently examine the figure for the purpose of discovering and learning the truth that is thus emphasized.

The phrased that should be noted is “specially designed emphasis.” Another statement that Bullinger made in How to Enjoy the Bible is that “the Figures, when used in connection with the ‘words which the Holy Ghost teacheth,’ give us the Holy Spirit’s own marking, so to speak, of our Bible…calling our attention to what He desires us to notice for our learning, as being emphatic, and conveying His own special teaching.” Every author has used figures for emphasis on what is important, but it is CRUCIAL to our understanding of the Bible to know what God intended to be emphasized in any particular passage. Thus, the search in this field should be to find out what each type of figure emphasizes and how it is used in the Scripture.

 This new translation of the Aramaic Peshitta is filled with footnotes and markings in the text itself of the common figures of speech. It is not pretending to have marked every single figure of speech possible, but to mark the ones which contribute to an added understanding of the text. We have devised a simple classification system which is employed in the footnotes. It classifies the figures into five main headings:

1. Illustration
2. Repetition
3. Meaning
4. Grammar
5. Rhetoric

A figure is always used to add force to the truth presented, emphasis to the word or words and depth of meaning to the entire context. The type of figure determines the emphasis in the following general ways:

1. Illustration – The word that is compared is highlighted by the extent of the comparison. Always seek for the points of comparison.
2. Repetition – The word that is repeated is emphasized. The closer the repetition, or the more frequently it is used, the greater is the degree of emphasis.
3. Meaning – Although this category is broad, the underlying meaning is always what is emphasized.
4. Grammar – Each type of figure has its individual emphasis, but is always employed with accuracy.
5. Rhetorical – Specific figures also work in specific ways, but the general rule is that the word or phrase used with the figure is what is emphasized.

Now that we have looked at the general categories, please study the Figures of Speech chart and pay particular attention to the column about emphasis. We have listed both the Greek/Latin name and also the English name in order to help with this study.

Several figures require further explanation. These are:

Metaphor

Ellipsis

Erotesis

Metonymy

Allegory

Normally, the definition of metaphor is similar to the following from “Silva Rhetoricae” (rhetoric.byu.edu): “A sustained metaphor continued through whole sentences or even through a whole discourse.” I believe that in terms of study of the Aramaic New Testament, this definition is too narrow. Especially in the Gospels, Jesus used examples which were not a whole story where every element was compared to something else. They were pithy short illustrations, usually from everyday life, that communicated a spiritual principle. There are several examples in the Sermon on the Mount:

Matthew 6:19-20:

You should not place for yourself treasures on earth, where moth and rust corrupt and where thieves break in and steal.

But place for yourself treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust corrupt and where thieves do not break in and do not steal.

For where your treasure is, there is also your heart.

This is a comparison of having a “treasure room” in a house, which was a glorified closet and would be subject to be corrupted by insects, weather, such as rain leaking through the roof, or thieves breaking a hole in the mud walls. It was a common picture of a storage room in a home. The entire passage teaches the lesson that spiritual treasures are much more important than earthly wealth.

The emphasis in an allegory is on the comparative elements, but also on the moral of the illustration. In these verses, the concluding sentence has the emphasis: “for where your treasure is, there is also your heart.” In every allegory, the student should seek for this concluding remark or the lesson behind the illustration.

Ellipsis

There are a large number of different kinds of ellipsis. We use it in ordinary speech every day in greeting one another, saying “Evening!” instead of “Good evening”. An ellipsis can be an omission of any word or phrase in the sentence. The most important point to remember is that the omitted words are what are emphasized. This becomes important in specific passages, because it is often not totally clear what the words are that are to be supplied.

John 8:37: I know that you [are] the seed of Abraham, but you are seeking to kill me, because you do not empty yourselves [to make room] for my word.

Note that the emphasis is not on “seeking to kill me” but on making room for Jesus’ word. The Pharisees were so full of their own doctrine and teaching, that they had no room for anything different.

The student should seek to find the appropriate words that are missing from the context of the passage and not only the immediate sentence.

Erotesis

An erotesis is a question that is not immediately answered. There are two kinds of questions:

1. A question that is used with the introductory words, “what”, “why”, “how” and the response generates thoughtful thinking. In the footnotes this is marked as a “question to ponder.” It may cause awe, wonder, shame, fear, contemplation of some kind. The student should consider his or her own answer to the question. The emphasis is designed to make the reader stop and think and consider the subject closely.
2. The second question is a LMA question, introduced by the interrogative particle The particle is not necessarily able to be translated. In the interlinear, it is often represented as <?> to introduce the question. This type of question always has an obvious answer, sometimes with exclamatory emphasis, either No! or Yes! The answer could also be as we would say, “of course!”

      Mark 2:19 has a simple example of this type of question: Jesus said to them, “Are the guests of the wedding feast able to fast as long as the bridegroom is with them? No!”

Allegory; or
Continued Metaphor and Hypocatastatis

Continued Comparison by Representation or Implication

Estimated reading time: 6 minutes

An excerpt from:

Al´-le-go-ry. Greek, ἀλληγορία, from ἄλλος (allos), another, and ἀγορεύειν (agoreuein), to speak or make a speech in the agora (i.e., assembly).

Few figures have been the subject of greater controversy than Allegory; or, have been more variously defined. One class of Rhetoricians declare that it is a continued metaphor: and another class declare that it is not. But, as is often the case under such circumstances, neither is quite correct, because both have a part of the truth and put it for the whole. Neither of the contending parties takes into consideration the existence of Hypocatastasis. And this fact accounts for the confusion, not only with regard to Allegory, but also with regard to Metaphor.

All three figures are based on comparison. Simile is comparison by resemblance; Metaphor is comparison by representation; Hypocatastasis is comparison by implication.

In the first the comparison is stated; in the second it is substituted; in the third it is implied.

Thus Allegory is a continuation of the latter two, Metaphor or Hypocatastasis; while the Parable (q.v.) is a continuation of the Simile.

This definition clears the whole ground, and explains the whole of the difficulties, and reconciles the different schools.

The Allegory, therefore, is of two kinds; one in which it is continued Metaphor (as in Ps. 23), where the two things are both mentioned (Jehovah, and the Shepherd’s care), and what is asserted belongs to the principal object; the other, in which it is continued Hypocatastasis (Ps. 80:8–15), where only one thing is mentioned (the vine), and what is asserted belongs properly to the Secondary object; viz., to Israel. Israel whom it really refers, is not mentioned, but only implied.

Isa. 5:1–6.—“This is an Allegory which combines both forms. “Judah and Jerusalem” (concerning whom Isaiah prophecies 1:1) are again represented as a vine, and the Allegory commences by implying them, and afterwards proceeds to substitute them (vers. 3–7).

Allegory thus differs from Parable, for a parable is a continued Simile. It never departs from the simple statement that one thing resembles another. While the allegory represents, or implies, that the one thing is the other. As in the allegory of the Pilgrim’s Progress: What is spoken of one person refers to another person in similar circumstances and experiences. In Ps. 80 and Isa. 5, what is spoken of a Vine refers to Israel: but, in Genesis, what is stated of Israel and Ishmael, Sarah and Hagar is all true history, yet in Gal. 4 it is made to speak of and set forth other truths, and hence there it is, and is called an “Allegory” (Gal. 4:24).

No figure requires more careful discrimination than Allegory. And it would be safer to say that there are no allegories in Scripture than to follow one’s own judgment as to what is allegory, and what is not.

At any rate, we have only one which is distinctly declared to be such; and that is Gal. 4:22, 24. “It is written, that Abraham had two sons, the one by a bondmaid, the other by a free woman. But he who was of the bond-woman was born after the flesh; but he of the free-woman was by promise. Which things are an Allegory”: or, which things teach or tell us something beyond what is said.

The modern and common usage of the word allegoria is thus quite different from this Scriptural definition. According to the modern sense it is taken to mean a fictitious narrative which has another and deeper meaning than that which is expressed.

An allegory may sometimes be fictitious, but Gal. 4 shows us that a true history may be allegorized (i.e., be shown to have further teaching in that which actually took place) without detracting from the truth of the history. Here note this important fact: that, in either case, Allegory is always stated in the past tense, and never in the future. Allegory is thus distinguished from Prophecy. The Allegory brings other teaching out of past events, while the prophecy tells us events that are yet to come, and means exactly what is said.

Gen. 49.—“The prophetical blessing of Jacob is mixed. Part of it is Simile (verse 4). Some is Metaphor (verse 9). In some parts the Metaphors are repeated, in which case we have Allegory.

Judges 9:7–15.—“This is not a parable, as the A.V. chapter-heading calls it; because there is no similitude, by which one thing is likened to another. It is a continued Hypocatastasis, only one of the two things being plainly mentioned. Were it not for the interpretation given, in verses 16–20, there would be nothing beyond what is implied.

It is interesting to note that the four trees referred to—“the Fig-tree, the Olive, the vine, and the Bramble—“are the four which are used to combine the whole of Israel’s history.

The fig-tree represents the National position of Israel, from which we learn (in the Synoptic Gospels) that it withered away and has been cut down.

The olive tree represents the Covenant privileges of Israel (Rom. 11): which are now in abeyance.

The vine represents Israel’s Spiritual blessings, which henceforth are to be found only in Christ, the True Vine (John 15).

The bramble represents the Antichrist, in whose shadow they will yet trust, but who will be to Israel a consuming fire in the day of “Jacob’s trouble”—“the great Tribulation.”^*

Isa. 28:20 is Allegory: i.e., repeated Hypocatastasis, only one part of the figure being mentioned: viz., the bed and its covering, and not the people to whom it refers. The prophet is speaking of the great fear which ought to agitate the people of Judea at the speedy coming of Sennacherib; but they preferred to be left in their false security. By this beautiful allegorical illustration they are informed that their rest should be restless, and their sleep should be soon disturbed.

Matt. 3:10, 12 is repeated Hypocatastasis, and therefore Allegory.

Matt. 5:13 is the same, following on “Ye are the salt of the earth,” which is Metaphor.

Matt. 7:3–5 is the same; only one thing, the mote and the beam, being named. What they mean is only implied.

Matt. 9:15 is the same, the meaning being implied.

Matt. 9:16, 17.—“The “old piece” on the new implies the solemn lesson as to the impossibility of reforming the Old nature.

Matt. 12:43–45.—“When the unclean spirit is gone out of a man,” etc. This is an Allegory. It is to be interpreted of the Jewish nation, as verse 45 declares. By application also it teaches the unclean spirit’s going out of his own accord, and not being “cast out” (verse 28, 29). When he is “cast out,” he never returns; but when he “goes out,” he comes back; and finds only a “reformed character,” instead of the Holy Spirit indwelling in the one who is born again.

Luke 9:62.—“No man having put his hand to the plough, and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God.” This is a brief allegory.

For other examples, see John 4:35. Rom. 11:16–18, etc.; 13:11, 12. 1 Cor. 3:6–8, 12–15; 5:7, 8. 2 Cor. 3:2, 3; 5:1, etc.; 10:3–5; 11:2. Gal. 6:8. Eph. 6:11, etc.

See Also:

Figures of Speech by A.E. Knoch

INTRODUCTION

God, Who studded the sky with jewels and carpeted the earth with colors, has written His revelation in language which reflects the beauties of His visible creation. The diction of the East and of the Scriptures is full of fine figures, over which we walk with ruthless tread, seldom stopping to admire the blooms beneath our feet. It is the voice of feeling as well as fact. Nor is its beauty merely ornamental. Unless our eyes are opened to their presence and we feel their force, we may fail to enter beneath the surface of bare facts, into the heart of God’s truth, and be led astray by mere externals.

NOT TRUE AS TO FACT

It is startling to realize that much of God’s Word is not literally true. Some of its most precious and important statements simply cannot be taken as they stand. “God is light” is not an actual fact. Literally stated, He is, in the spiritual sphere, in some ways like light in the physical realm. But how much more forceful and beautiful to condense all this into a short and striking sentence, even if it is not strictly correct! This should open our eyes to realize that not everything in the Scriptures must be taken literally. When the Lord told His disciples that Lazarus had found repose and that He was about to wake him out of sleep, they took His word literally, which was misleading. So He told them frankly that Lazarus had died. By this figure, which was not true in fact, He had foreshadowed the great truth that Lazarus’ death was like taking a nap, for He would rouse him from the tomb. We should be on our guard when Scripture states that which cannot be true. Such words are not false, but figurative. Because the Scriptures unfold to us the metaphysical and the spiritual, for which we have no organs of perception, these are usually spoken of in terms of the physical and the material. Hence we should expect to find many figures in God’s revelation. Words used literally of things in the lower sphere, accessible to our soulish senses, are needed in a superior sense for that which belongs to a higher sphere. Such conceptions as light and darkness, life and death, high and low, are freely used as figures. In fact, many have been so often used in this fashion that we mistakenly speak of the figurative usage as a special “meaning,” when it is really a faded figure.

IMPORTANCE IN INTERPRETATION

Of the vast importance of figures of speech in interpretation, there can be no question. In the Reformation a single metaphor, “this is My body,” led to conflicts and divisions which would never have arisen if there had been even an elementary knowledge of figurative language. On some subjects, the Scriptures seem to contradict themselves, simply because figures are taken for facts. When the figure is recognized, the conflict vanishes. An investigation will show that differences of interpretation occur especially often with words which are frequently used figuratively. As a rule this has affected their literal significance and clouded the passages in which they appear. In such cases, if the literal is sharply distinguished, the discrepancies will disappear.

NOT EVIDENCE FOR THE MEANING OF WORDS

In seeking to fix the exact significance of a word, only its literal usage should be consulted. Here alone the actual meaning appears. The figurative is a departure from it. Therefore, in the Keyword Concordance, many of the figurative expressions have been indicated. They should not be included in the evidence when fixing a word’s precise signification. This does not apply equally to all figures. The context within a parable shows the meaning of a word, for the parts of a parable may be literal with respect to one another. Thus we may learn much of darnel in the parable of the sowing, even though the darnel itself is a figure of hypocritical disciples.

The literal meaning of a word is one and constant: the figurative usage is diverse and variable. The fact that lexicographers as a rule fail to distinguish the meaning of a word from the usage has made their definitions indefinite, and has led to much confusion. A word has been given many “meanings” by incorporating its figurative usages. As these may vary much, the true significance of the word becomes obscure. It is important that we give each word a constant literal meaning, but it is equally necessary that we do not apply its figurative usage in every passage.

FIGURES IN TRANSLATION

As the dangers of a close rendering arise largely from figures of speech, or rather from the lack of a proper observance of them, it was deemed wise to determine, list and analyze the principal figures, especially those which affect translation, and thus safeguard the concordant method in this direction. Hence this Concordance, listing most of the occurrences of each figure, was prepared.

THE ADVANTAGE OF A CONCORDANCE

Just as, in seeking the meaning of a word in the Scriptures, we should examine all of its literal occurrences, so the best method of fixing the force of any figure is to investigate all of its examples in Holy Writ. Figures of Speech Used in the Bible by E. W. Bullinger, D.D., (Grand Rapids, MI 49506: Baker Book House) has proved to be a valuable tool in preparing the following Concordance of Figures. The principal advantage of the following Concordance is that it brings most of the figures of the same kind together, so that each may be interpreted consistently with all the rest.

The concordance of words used literally will show that each one has but one central significance, but a Concordance of Figures will show that each one may also be used for different, and even opposite, ideas.

COMPOUND OR COMPLEX FIGURES

Frequently a single expression is figurative in two or more directions. Thus, in the sentence, “ Heaven is God’s throne,” the word “ throne” is a Metaphor, for heaven is not only said to be like, but to be a throne. But a throne, in this case, is not merely the piece of furniture, but stands for the idea of rule. So it is also an Association (Metonyrny). As it ascribes what is human to the Deity, it is also a Condescension (Anthropopatheia). Only the principal figure may be indicated in such cases.

Many figures may be classified under two or more headings, when they possess characteristics of each. Thus Parallelisms may be, in some degree, Repetitions, yet the figure lies rather in the arrangement of the words and sentences. Hard and fast lines cannot always be drawn.

FADED FIGURES

Many figures have been used so much that it seems far-fetched to mark them as such. Thus, rise, as applied to the dead, is a clear figure, yet it is used commonly in this sense, hence it is not marked. The boundary between faded and unfaded figures is very vague, so we have sought to be practical and helpful, even though it was not always possible to be consistent.

LIMITATIONS OF FIGURES

Figures, especially those of likeness, must be strictly limited to the point or points, of contact, for it is axiomatic that there is unlikeness in all other particulars. They must never be used as if they were true in fact. Therefore it is unwise to use figures of speech as a basis of reasoning, for the points of contact are limited to those stated or apparent, and they may not be extended to other relations. Thus when Paul speaks of betrothing the Corinthians to Christ, he refers only to their singleness and purity. The figure does not include any other aspect of betrothal or refer in any way to marriage. It is confusing to connect it with such figures.

NOMENCLATURE

A name should be an index of that which it represents. The names usually given to figures of speech have been so technical and foreign that they have made the subject unnecessarily difficult and distasteful. Hence we will give a new English name to such as need one. Instead of calling the commonest of figures a Hypocatastasis we will define it by the name Implication, and, as it occurs so frequently, simply mark it with ^F for Figure. The common, well-known names, as Simile, Metaphor, Parable, etc., will be retained.

[Editor’s Note: Reference here, and elsewhere, to the use of superscript characters concerns their use in the Keyword Concordance, from which this section has been taken.]

CLASSIFICATION

Figures may Be classified in many different ways, but they are so lacking in definite boundaries, and so often overlay each other, that no classification is altogether ideal. Hence we have chosen the course which seems most practical and helpful, and have divide them into small groups according to their salient characteristics, and have put them in the order of their importance. Most figures are figures of likeness, hence these lead the rest, followed by those of association. The groups are as follows: Likeness, Association, Arrangements Omission, Addition, Repetition, Grammatical Substitution, Variance, Rhetoric.

FIGURES OF LIKENESS

Likeness, or comparison, is the most frequent form in which figures are found. Though there are only a few varieties which are based on similarity, most figures, by far, belong to this class. In fact, one of these, Implication, is so frequently found, that we will simply call it a “ figure.”

The point to press in figures of likeness is that they depend upon unlikeness. Two objects must be unlike in the main, and similar in one or more particulars, in order to be a figure. Under no circumstances must the likeness be allowed to go beyond these particulars, or the figure is violated. So also, in parables the salient points alone are to be pressed, for much detail may be included which merely makes the picture complete.

All figures of likeness may be expanded into a simile, by adding the formula “ is like.” This is one of the simplest tests to determine whether it is included in this class. The simile actually states that one thing is like or similar to another in some respect, hence no notation is needed to call attention to it, as “ All flesh is like grass.” The metaphor is bolder. It leaves the realm of fact, and says that one is another, as “ All flesh is grass.” Still more striking is the implication, which takes the likeness for granted, as “ the grass withers.” The parable goes further and makes a whole statement, including action, as “ Physician, cure yourself.” It will be seen that these figures are, in one sense, figures of omission, for they are abbreviated similes.

Especially in parables, there are many words which seem to be quite literal in their context, but become figurative because the context is a comparison. They are marked with a ^P for Parable and a ^V for Vision in the KEYWORD CONCORDANCE.

The figures of likeness consist of Simile, Metaphor, Implication, Parable. Allegory, Vision, Sign, Type, Shadow, Example, Image, Impersonation (or Personification), and Condescension.

SIMILE

It is only when two dissimilar objects are said to be alike in some particular that the simile becomes a figure of speech. Even then, it is true in fact, hence it is only partly over the border line of figures. But, as it is the essence of all figures of likeness, into which they all may be expanded, we will include it in our classification.

METAPHOR

The metaphor is an abbreviated simile. It omits the statement of likeness, hence it is not true as to fact, but forceful as to feeling. Instead of saying that one thing is like another, it boldly insists that it is that other. The substantive verb is usually present, as, “ This is My body.” Literal facts may be stated with or without the verb, but this figure calls for its presence. It is indicated by the tiny superior ^M before the verse reference.

IMPLICATION(FIGURE)

By far the most frequent of figures is the Implication (Hypocatastasis), which, on this account, we designate simply by the letter ^F for Figure. Not only does it omit the statement of likeness (which the Simile has) but it also does without the verb is (which the Metaphor has), simply taking the likeness for granted. The similarity is implied, hence the name Implication.

PARABLE

A likeness developed into action is called a Parable. In Greek this is literally that which is cast beside, a parallel. In it, one set of circumstances in the physical sphere is likened to a spiritual counterpart, The resemblance extends to action, and must include a verb used figuratively. To put it popularly, a parable is a moving picture, while a metaphor or implication is a still one. Every figurative action seems to have the making of a parable. Absolute boundaries cannot be drawn, nor are they vital. There should be a figurative object, combined with a figurative action.

The shortest named parable in the Scriptures is: “ Physician, cure yourself!” (Luke 4:23). Here both the noun and the verb are figurative. Our Lord is not merely compared to a physician, but to one who attends his own case. The action of the physician is added to the likeness. According to this inspired example, no lengthy story is needed to constitute a scriptural parable. Hence there are many more of these than is usually supposed. The verb and noun which make the parable must be literal in regard to each other. A physician cures. But a case such as “ put on . . . the old humanity” (Eph. 4:22) is not a parable, though both noun and verb are figurative, for we strip off clothing, not humanity. Perhaps the most extensive parable in the Scriptures is the tabernacle and its ritual (Heb. 9:9).

The same figure must be apparent in both the noun and the verb. “ Physician, deal with your own misfortune!” would not be a parable, as the figure is lacking in the verb. Neither would “ you should cure yourself” do, for the corresponding figure in the noun is lacking.

Many parables are compound, that is, consisting of more than one picture, sometimes in a parallel, as make ready a road and straighten a highway (Matt. 3:3). Sometimes it is progressive, as, scour a threshing floor, gather into a barn, burn the chaff (Matt. 3:12), or complex, with more than one verb, as, salt made insipid, cast out, trampled (Matt. 5:13).

As the function of a parable is to make a physical parallel for metaphysical truth, it need not be based on actual facts. Culling grapes from thorns (Matt. 7:16) cannot be a real occurrence. It is not likely that someone paid the same wages for one hour’s work as for a whole day (Matt. 20:1-16). The physical must be accommodated to the truth to be paralleled, for this, and not the story told, is where the point lies.

ALLEGORY

The only Allegory mentioned in the Scriptures makes an actual, historical occurrence represent truth in another realm. Two women stand for two covenants (Gal. 4:22-28). This seems to be the real distinguishing feature of the allegory: Actual persons in their everyday lives set forth truth in the spiritual sphere.

VISION

In a Vision the eyes behold what is outside the range of human sight or has no real existence at the time. While not an actual figure of speech, it often, like the parable, is often filled with implications which used so constantly that they become symbols. Thus, in the Revelation, the throne stands for rule and the temple for religion, the Lambkin for the sacrifice of Christ and the wild beast for the opposing powers.

The Principal Visions

The transformation, Matt. 17:1-5, Mark 9:2-7, Luke 9:29-35; the flaming thorn bush, Acts 7:30-34; Ananias and Saul, Acts 9:10-16; messenger of God to Cornelius, Acts 10:3-6; Peter, sheet let down from heaven, Acts 10:11-16, 11:5-10; man of Macedonia to Paul, Acts 16:9; Paul at Corinth, Acts 18:9, 10; Son of Mankind, amidst lampstands, Rev. 1:10-20; throne, scroll, Lambkin, Rev. 4:1-5:14; seals opened, Rev. 6:1-17; the 144,000, 7:1-8; vast throng, Rev. 7:9-17; seven trumpets, Rev. 8:1-9:21; seven thunders, Rev. 10:1-7; the tiny scroll, Rev. 10:8-11; the two witnesses, Rev. 11:1-13; seventh trumpet, Rev. 11:15-18;the temple open, Rew. 11:19-13:18; the 144,000, Rev. 14:1-13; the harvest, Rev. 14:14-16; the vintage, Rev. 14:17-20; the seven calamities, Rev. 15:1-16:21; the unfaithful woman and the scarlet wild beast. Rev. 17:1-18; Babylon, Rev. 18:1-19:5; marriage of the Lambkin, Rev. 19:6-10: Gods great dinner, Rev. 19:11-21; the thousand years, Rev. 20:1-10; the great White Throne, Rev. 20:11-15; the new Jerusalem, Rev. 21:1-23; the river of life, Rev. 22:1-3.

SIGN

A Sign is an actual occurrence which carries with it a significance not apparent on the surface. It may be a simple act, as the kiss of Judas (Matt. 26:48), which signified Who Christ was, or it may include several objects and considerable circumstance, as the woman and the male son (Rev. 12:5). A salutation by Paul’s own hand was a sign of the genuineness of an epistle from him. Circumcision was the sign of God’s covenant Our Lord did many clear signs in order to show that He is the promised Messiah. Almost every miracle of healing set forth His restoration of Israel in the Kingdom to come. Almost all of His acts are significant of the future.

Signs in the Scriptures

Jonah the prophet, Matt. 12:39, 16:4, Luke 11:29, 30; the Son of Mankind, Matt. 24:30, Luke 11:30; Judas’ kiss, Matt. 26:48; casting out demons, talking new languages, picking up serpents, drinking deadly drink . . . no harm, placing hands on ailing . . . well, Mark 16:17, 18; Babe in manger, Luke 2:12; in the sun, moon, constellations, on earth, pressure of nations in perplexity, resounding of the sea and shaking, chilling of men from fear, Luke 21:25, 26; wedding at Cana, John 2:1-11; raze and raise temple, John 2:19; healing the courtier’s son, John 4:46-54; feeding the five thousand, John 6:10-14; raising Lazarus, John 11:23-44; healing the lame man, Acts 3:2-10; unclean spirits come out, paralytics and lame are cured, Acts 8:7; healing paralyzed Eneas, Acts 9:33-34; Dorcas brought back to life, Acts 9:36-41; lame man of Lystra cured, Acts 14:8-10; circumcision, Rom. 4:11; languages for a sign, I Cor. 14:22; Paul’s hand (writing), 2 Thes. 3:17; woman, Rev. 12:l; dragon, Rev. 12:3-6; messengers with calamities, Rev. 15:1.

TYPE

A Type is literally the impression left when using a die, as the print of the nails (John 20:25), the pattern which is to be followed. It is, therefore, a likeness which extends to details. The only one mentioned in the Scriptures is that of Adam who corresponds with Christ (Rom. 5:12-21). The tabernacle was made to correspond with the type or model shown Moses in the mount (Heb. 8:5).

An antitype, in Greek, is not the reality which is typified, but is, like the type, a representation of the true, as the holy places made by hands (Heb. 9:24) and baptism (1 Pet. 3:21).

SHADOW

Shadow is the apt scriptural term for dark representations of unseen or future realities. The offerings under the law were a shadow of the divine service of the celestials. The law had a shadow of the impending good (Heb. 10:1). The instructions regarding food, drink, festivals, new moons and sabbaths foreshadow what is still impending (Col. 2:16-17).

EXAMPLE

The Example (Exemplum) is another aspect of the Shadow, for under the law of Moses, the offerings were both an example and a shadow of the divine service of the celestials (Heb. 8:5). The tabernacle and its vessels are examples of what is in the heavens (Heb. 9:23).

IMAGE

An Image is a closer likeness than a shadow, being a visible delineation of that which is invisible or absent, Christ is the Image of God (Col. 1:15). Caesar’s image was on the currency (Matt. 22:20). The image of the wild beast will be his effigy.

IMPERSONATION ( or PERSONIFICATION)

Things are spoken of as persons in this figure, As the letter ^P is needed to indicate a Parable, we have changed Personification to Impersonation and use the letter ^I to mark it.

CONDESCENSION

When God is spoken of as if He were human, or were a part of His creation, this is done in His condescension, so that He may reveal Himself in terms within the range of human perception.

THE DIMINUTIVE

That which is small in size awakens in us a variety of feelings, principally affection or contempt. This may arise partly from association also. Thus, in some languages, the diminutive ending is freely used to express regard. In the Scriptures, we have one special instance in which it is used in a derogatory sense. The “ little women, heaped with sins,” would hardly be confined to those small of stature. Yet here there is a strong likelihood that it was a term of affection at first, and only took on a derogatory sense by association.

FIGURES OF ASSOCIATION

Association includes that class of figures in which something associated with a thing is put for it. Our Lord practically defined it when He said. “ He who swears by heaven is swearing by the throne of God and by Him Who is sitting upon it” (Matt. 23:22). Here we have God’s throne put for His rule and heaven put for the throne, not because there is any likeness between these, but because they are associated with one another. The difference between a literal statement and this figure is plainly seen in the statement, “ I came not to be casting peace but a sword” (Matt. 10:34). Literally, it would read strife or war in place of sword. The sword is so commonly used (by association) for war, that it may be called its symbol, were it not that it is used in a still broader sense for all enforcements of government (Rom. 13:4).

ASSOCIATION

Association, usually called Metonymy, may also be classed as a figure of omission, for it may always be made literal by the insertion of an explanatory phrase. Thus, the phrase “ the kingdom of the heavens” may be expanded into “ the kingdom (of the God of) the heavens” (Dan. 2:44). By usage it includes the thought of God ruling the earth through others.

A common form of Association is worthy of special mention, in which a noun is followed by another in the genitive case, as, “ purpose of the eons,” which may be expanded as “ purpose (carried out during) the eons,” or “ the word of life,” expanded, “ the word (which gives) life.” The relation is usually general, and may be expanded in a variety of ways. It is not always clear whether there is a figure present when two nouns are thus related, so the following are only representative, striking examples.

Often such formations appear where we would generally use an adjective in English, such as “ Son of His love” (Col. 1:13) instead of “ His beloved Son” or “ administration of the secret” (Eph. 3:9) instead of “ secret administration.” There are exceptions, though. “ Slaves of Sin” (Rom. 6:17), for example, does not mean “ sinful slaves” for the very reason that in Romans six Sin is personified as a ruler. The context will have to decide what is the correct procedure. In the Version the translation often follows the word order of the Greek. Thus in such cases the decision whether or not the genitive noun has an adjectival sense must be left to the discernment of the reader.

Association, Noun with genitive Noun

APPELLATION

In an Appellation some quality, office or attribute is used instead of a proper name, as when God is spoken of as “ the Majesty”, Heb. 1:3). Sometimes this is reversed, and a proper name is used to indicate that with which it is associated, as when John the Baptist is called Elijah, because he came in his spirit and power (Matt. 17:12, Luke 1:17). It is used frequently when calling our Lord, Teacher, Rabbi, Son of Mankind, Prophet, Christ, Lord, etc, These are too numerous to list. See also Acts 22:14, 25:26.

COMPOUND ASSOCIATION

Association may be so remote that it is best resolved by making two steps (Metalepsis). Thus, “ the word of the cross” (1 Cor. 1:18, uses the term cross for the shameful death endured, and this, in turn, for the effects which follow it (Gal. 6:14, Col. 1:20). So also the blood of Christ, since it contained the soul (Lev. 17:11), figures His suffering, and beyond this its effects as figured in the tabernacle and temple ritual. See under blood in the Concordance.

NEAR ASSOCIATION

Near Association (Synecdoche) is a special form of Association in which it is partly literal. Thus, when we read that Jerusalem went out to hear John the Baptist (Matt. 3:5), we know that the place itself did not go, but the inhabitants, a part of it, are intended. This figure is frequently used of the flesh to indicate the physical frame of man, including the bones and the blood, though, in other places these are especially distinguished from it.

EUPHEMISM

Euphemism (Euphemismos) is the substitution of a pleasant expression for an offensive one. It is not often used in the Scriptures except in the verb know when referring to the relations of the sexes.

RETENTION

Retention is the use of an epithet in a new relation which displaces the old, though it is no longer literally true. It is often used of those our Lord healed, as when the dumb talk. But it is especially striking in such phrases as, “ the tablets of the heart” (2 Cor. 3:3) displacing the tablets of the law, and “ a new covenant” (2 Cor. 3:6) displacing the old literal covenant. The following are examples: blind, Matt. 11:5, 15:31; covenant, Matt. 26:28, Mark 14:24, Luke 22:20, Rom. 11:27, 1 Cor. 11:25, 2 Cor. 3:6, Heb. 8:8, 10, 9:15, 10:16, 29, 13:20: dead, Luke7:15, 1 Pet. 4:5, 6, Rev. 20:12; mute, Matt. 9:33, 11:5, 12:22, Luke 7:22, 11:14; kingdom, 1 Cor. 15:24; lame, Matt. 11:5; leper, Matt. 26:6, Mark 14:3; tablets, 2 Cor. 3:3; tribute collector, Matt. 10:3; water, John 2:9.

CIRCUMLOCUTION

Circumlocution (Periphrasis) uses a descriptive phrase in place of a name in order to emphasize the association. Occurrences are: born of women (human) Matt. 11:11, Luke 7:28; the product of the grapevine (wine) Matt. 26:29: the city of David (Bethlehem) Luke 2:11; those sitting on the surface of the entire earth (humanity) Luke 21:35; terrestrial tabernacle house (body) 2 Cor. 5:1; those about to be enjoying the allotment of salvation (the saved) Heb. 1:14; in this tabernacle (alive) 2 Pet. 1:13; my tabernacle is to be put off (die) 2 Pet. 1:14; He Who is sitting on the throne (the Deity) Rev. 4:2, 10, 5:1, 7.

ENIGMA

Ancient mirrors did not reflect clearly or fully. So also with God’s Word up to the latest revelations of Paul. Previous unfoldings he speaks of as an enigma (1 Cor 13:12).

SYMBOL

The Symbol is a more or less permanent figure of likeness or association. In order to understand symbols there must be a close acquaintance with the figures of which they are composed. In no case should they conflict with literal or later revelation. They come too close to the realm of interpretation to be dealt with here at length. We simply add some examples of figures which seem to warrant this designation, as well as some symbolic actions. The action is literal, but is associated with and implies a spiritual attitude or activity. Thus, bowing the knee indicates worship.

Symbolic Objects

Cambric, horse, key, leaven, sheep, throne, trees, water.

Symbolic Actions

Beat the chest, Luke 18:13, 23:48; bind, Acts 21:11; bow the knee, Rom. 11:4, 14:11, Eph. 3:14, Phil. 2:10; gird up the loins, 1 Pet. l:13; give the right hand, Gal. 2:9; impose hands, 1 Tim. 4:14, 5:22, Heb. 6:2; kiss, Rom. 16:16, 1 Cor. 16:20, 2 Cor. 13:12, 1 Pet. 5:14; lift up eyes, Luke 18:13; lift up hands, Luke 24:50, 1 Tim. 2:8; loose sandals, Acts 7:33, 13:25; loose the thong, John 1:27; measure, Rev. 11:1; place foot on, Rev. 10:2; shake off dust, Matt. 10:14, Acts 13:51; shake out garment, Acts 18:6; sit at right, Col. 3:1, Heb. 1:3, 13, 8:1, 10:12; sit in sackcloth and ashes, Luke 10:13; spew out of mouth, Rev. 3:16: stand at door and knock, Rev. 3:20 stand at right, Acts 7:56; stand on, Rev. 10:5; taking hold of hand, Heb. 8:9; trumpet, Rev. 8, 9, 11; twitch off dust, Luke 9:5; wash feet. John 13:4-12; wash hands, Matt. 27:24; wipe off dust, Luke 19:11.

FIGURES OF ARRANGEMENT

The arrangement of words, phrases and sentences determines their emphasis and helps in interpretation.

PROMINENCE

In impassioned and even in ordinary speech the important words are pushed to the fore, which produces emphasis, by means of Prominence (Hyperbaton). In an inflected language like Greek this can be done much more than in one like English, in which the sense depends, in some measure, on the position of a word in its sentence.

PARALLELISM

Parallelism or Correspondence consists of the repetition of a sentence or sentences in similar or contrastive terms and in the same order. An example is Luke 1:46-47:

My soul is magnifying the Lord,
And my spirit exults in God, my Saviour.

Soul corresponds to spirit, magnify to exult, and Lord to God. It may be extended so as to be written in several lines and then is sometimes called an Alternation. But, as there is no real difference, parallelism is a better term for all. It is not confined to poetry. It is especially effective in Contrastive Parallelism, as Matt. 6:19, 20:

Do not hoard for yourselves treasures on earth,
where moth and corrosion are causing them to disappear,
and where thieves are tunnelling and stealing.
Yet hoard for yourselves treasures in heaven,
where neither moth nor corrosion are causing them to disapppear,
and where thieves are not tunnelling or stealing.

REVERSAL

A Reversal (Introversion, Epanodos, Antimetabole, Chiasmus) consists of the repetition of a sentence or sentences, or a larger section, in similar or contrastive terms, but in reverse order, The whole of Scripture is a reversal, beginning with the creation and ending with a new creation, in which the destruction by water (Gen. 1:2) corresponds to that by fire (2 Pet. 3:6-7, Rev. 20), its restoration (Gen. 1:2, 2:3) with the thousand years (Rev. 20:4), the serpent’s entry with the binding of Satan, etc. The life of our Lord and the four accounts of it are constructed according to this plan, for, after His rejection, He retraces His steps, as it were. Most of Paul’s epistles are arranged in this way, as the frameworks in the Complete Edition will show. In these larger writings, of course, this applies only to the outlines. The details may be parallelisms.

The recognition of this figure may be a help in interpretation, as in Matthew 7:6:

You may not be giving that which is holy to curs,
nor yet should you be casting your pearls in front of hogs,
lest at some time they [the hogs] be trampling them with their feet
and, turning, they [the curs] should be tearing you.

The structure of Romans is a good illustration of this figure as applied to a whole epistle. It is a regular reversal. except that the two main sections run parallel in their parts. Other examples are given in the notes of the Complete Edition of the Concordant Version.

MIXED ARRANGEMENTS

The larger frameworks usually contain both parallelism and inversion. Thus the epistle to the Romans is a reversal, yet the two great doctrinal divisions, dealing with justification and conciliation are parallels. In such a case it is better to call the whole a Reversal with (Doctrinal) Parallelism, rather than make a new name.

Contrast (Antithesis) places one expression over against another of opposite meaning, as in Rom. 5:18, one offense is set over against one just award; in Acts16:37, publicly, surreptitiously; Rom. 5:19, disobedience, obedience; 6:7, 8, die, live; 8:5, 13, flesh, spirit; 2 Cor. 4:17, light affliction, burden of glory; 18, temporary, eonian; 2 Cor. 6:8-10, glory and dishonor, defamation and renown, deceivers and true, unknown and recognized, dying and living, sorrowing yet rejoicing, poor yet enriching, nothing and all; Phil. 3:7, gain, forfeit; 2Pet. 2:19, freedom, slavery.

Contraries (Enantiosis) is a contrast in which the difference is expressed by negations and affirmations, as righteousness not of law but of faith. See Luke 7:44:46.

FIGURES OF OMISSION

As figures arise from fervor of speech, and this is inclined to be terse, they are often accompanied by the omission (Ellipsis) of words. The figure of Association may often be made literal by adding an explanatory phrase, as “ the cup [containing the wine] of blessing” (1 Cor. 10:16). Besides this there are omissions which cannot be so explalned as, “ finishing [the evangelization of] the cities Of Israel” (Matt. 10:23).

NOUN OMITTED

A very frequent and useful form of this figure is the omission of the noun, leaving the adjective to stand for it. This is usually explained as the use of the adjective instead of the noun (Antimereia), but it seems simpler to consider it as an omission, by which the adjective is emphasized. Examples as the good [people], the wicked, the blind, the lame, the rich, the poor, the twelve [apostles], etc., show how often this figure is used.

PRONOUN OMITTED

In the Original the pronoun is occasionally omitted, but, as a rule, it must be inserted in the translation. In the CONCORDANT LITERAL NEW TESTAMENT such insertions are given in light-faced type (Matt. 19:13, Mark 5:23, 6:5, 6:16, Luke 24:40, John 11:41, 15:6, Acts 2:29, 13:3, 29, 29, 19.:26, Rom. 8:23, 2 Cor..11:20, 20, Eph. 3:18, 2 Tim. 4:18, Heb. 4:15, 1 Pet. 2:23).

VERB OMITTED

Occasionally the verb is unimportant and is omitted, so throwing the stress on that which is done, rather than on the action, as: gave, Matt. 14:19; coming, Mark 7:4; came, Acts 10:15; shall be vivified, 1Cor. 15:23; is nullified, remains, 2Cor. 3:11; etc. The verb substantive (to be) is frequently omitted in the Scriptures. It is self-evident as a rule, and its omission helps to stress other parts of the sentence. As it is printed in light-face type when not in the Greek, many examples may easily be found, as, glory [be] to God, Luke 2:14; God [is] spirit, John 4:24, etc.

INCONGRUOUS OMISSION

When the omission of the verb seems to connect a verb with an incongruous object, this is called Zeugma. As it is seldom seen, a few examples will show that it is, in reality, a simple omission, “ Opened was his mouth, and his tongue [was loosed]” Luke 1:64. “ To do whatever Thy hand [does] and Thy counsel designates beforehand to occur” Acts 4:28. “ Milk I give you to drink, not solid food [to eat]” 1 Cor. 3:2.

AND

When the different details of a statement are not to be separately considered, but to be hurried over in order to reach the climax, the conjunction and is omitted (Asyndeton). It should be compared with the opposite figure, Many-Ands (Polysyndeton) in which each statement is introduced by and, When the and occurs only before the last item enumerated, there is no figure. Some examples are: Mark 7:21, 16:17, 18, Luke 1:17, 14:13,l4, 17:27, Rom. 2:19-23, 1 Cor. 3:12, 4:8, 12:28, 30.

UNFINISHED SENTENCE

A striking effect is produced by breaking off a statement, and leaving it to be finished by the hearer (Aposiopesis). Hebrews 3:11 is a powerful example: If they shall be entering into My stopping—! Others are found in Mark8:12, Luke l3:9, 19:42, John 6:62, Acts 23:9.

OMISSION

Non-Sequence (Anacoluthon) is the breaking off of the thread of thought and so omitting to finish one sentence before beginning another, as Luke 21:6: These which you are beholding—there will be coming days . . . See Galatians 2:6.

CONCLUSION OMITTED

When the conclusion is left to the imagination of the hearer, this may be classed as an omission (Syllogismus). Instead of saying that God’s care is very minute, our Lord said, “ of your head even the hairs are all numbered,” Matt. 10:30. See also Matt. 25:20. Luke 7:44.

FIGURES OF ADDITION

That which is added for emphasis, and is not needed for the sense, may be considered the figure of Addition (Pleonasm, Redundance). Most of these are idioms carried over from the Hebrew, and may be classified under other figures as well. Thus, “ hollowed be Thy name” (Matt. 6:9) is the figur

e of Association, yet is not necessary for the sense, which could be expressed by be hollowed. So also the word son is frequently used, as “ the sons of mankind” (Mark 3:28), and hand, as “ through the hands of the apostles” (Acts 5:12), and face, “from the face of the Lord” (Acts3:19), and midst, as “severing the wicked from the midst of the just”  (Matt. 13:49). Other examples will be found under these words in the Concordance.

More rarely an unneeded word is added for emphasis or elegance, as: tabernacle house, 2 Cor. 5:1; blesses us with every spiritual blessing, Eph. 1:3.

NEGATIVE REPETITION

Special emphasis is given to a statement if it is followed by its opposite with a negative, as: he avows and denies not, John 1:20. See also the following: John 1:3, Acts 18:9, Rom. 4:20, 12:11, 12:14, 1 Cor. 1:10, Gal. 5:l, 1 John 1:8.

HISTORICAL SUPPLEMENT

Occasionally a hitherto unrecorded historical supplement (Hysteresis) is added, as: Zacharias, son of Berechiah, whom you murder between the temple and the altar (Mat 23:35), and: he dwells in a city termed Nazareth, so that that may be fulfilled which is declared through the prophets that: A Nazarene shall He be called (Matt. 2:23). Neither of these are written in the prophets. They are supplements, telling us what was done and spoken, but not recorded. Further examples may be found in Acts 9:22, 26 (Saul’s call), 2 Tim. 3:8, Heb. 9:19, 11:21, 12:21, James 5:17, Jude 9.

ENUMERATION ( or DISSECTION)

When the whole has been mentioned, and the parts are added, we may call this Enumeration (Merismos). When the whole is not mentioned, it does not really differ from an enumeration, and is called Dissection (Synathrismos). Of the former class, Galatians 5:22 is a good example, where the fruit of the spirit is enumerated. See also Romans 2:6-8, Galatians 5:19-21, and the occurrences of the word whether in the Concordance. In the latter class we have the list of things which make up the apostasy (1 Tim. 4:1-3). See also Romans 1:29-31, 2 Timothy 3:1-7, 1 Peter 4:3.

SUMMARIZING

An Enumeration which is condensed is sometimes called Summarizing (Epitrochasmos). See Hebrews 11:39.

SUMMARY

A Summary (Symperasma) gives a brief epitome of the foregoing. See Matthew 1:17, John 20:30, Hebrews 11:39.

ADDITIONS IN A SENTENCE

PARENTHESIS

A Parenthesis (Interpositio) is an independent statement in the midst of another, without grammatical connection. These are usually enclosed in curved marks in the text of the Concordant Literal New Testament. A few examples follow: Matt. 24:15, Mark 7:2, 3, 4, 11, 13:14, Heb. 2:9, 2 Pet. 1:19.

RUNNING REMARK

A Parenthesis more or less independent may be called a Running Remark (Epitrechon). It is usually set off by dashes or parentheses.

Thus, in John 2:9, the remark is injected: (yet the servants who have drawn the water were aware). See also Matt. 9:6, John 4:8, 9, Acts 1:15, Rom. 3:5, 8, 8, 8:20, 9:3, 10:6, 7, Eph. 2:5, 5, 11, Col. 2:22, Heb. 12:20, 21.

INSERTION

A longer parenthesis is given the special name of Insertion (Parabole). Thus in Mark 7:3, 4 a long explanation is inserted. In 2 Cor. 12:2, 3 two sentences are inserted. Elsewhere whole paragraphs are evidently insertions, as 1 Corinthians 15:20-28, which reads on only if these verses are omitted. See also 2 Cor. 3:5, Eph. 3:2-13.

PARENTHETIC APOLOGY

A Parenthetic Apology (Hypotimesis) is used to excuse a seeming impropriety, as 2 Cor. 11:21: (in imprudence am I saying it), or Rom. 3:5: (As a man am I saying it).

POSTSCRIPT

The Postscript (Epicrisis) as a detached remark concerning what has been said. It occurs most frequently in John’s account, as John 3:24: for not as yet was John cast into jail. See also John 1:28, 34, 6:4, 7:5, 8:20, 27, 9:14, 22, 10:22, 23, 11:13, 30, 12:33, Acts 19:20, 1 John 3:1.

INTENSIFICATION

An Intensification (Epitasis) is a concluding sentence which emphasizes what has been said, as Acts 7:5: He does not give him any allotment to enjoy in it, nor even a platform for a foot. See John 13:34.

CLIMAX

Climax (Anabasis) is an increase in sense or emphasis by steps, as in I Corinthians 4:8: sated, rich, reign. See also Luke 11:9: request, seek, knock; 1 John 1:1: was heard, seen, gazed upon, handled.

EXAGGERATION

Exaggeration (Hyperbole) adds to the sense more than is intended, as when the Pharisees said: the world came away after Him (John 12:19). See also Luke 2:l, John 3:26, 1 Cor. 4:15, Jas. 3:6, 4:1.

SUBTRACTION—ANTICLIMAX

Anticlimax (Catabasis) is a decrease in sense or emphasis by steps. The seven steps in our Saviour’s descent to the cross is the most striking example (Phil. 2:6-8).

FIGURES OF REPETITION

SOUNDS OR LETTERS

Alliteration (Homoeopropheron) repeats the same letter or sound at the beginning of words.

End Rhyme (Homoeoteluton) repeats the sound at the end of words.

Inflection Rhyme (Homoeoptoton, Paramcoeosis) repeats the same inflection, hence the same sound at the end of words.

These forms are seen only in the original language, and it is never certain whether the similarity is simply incidental or intended.

The Acrostic (Acrostichion) is the repetition of certain letters according to the alphabet, to spell words, or some definite arrangement. It occurs in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, but not in the Greek.

REPETITION—SOUNDS

Rhyme (Paronomasia) is the repetition of the same sound, in the original languages. As this may often be incidental, without design, its presence is not always intentional, and should only be noticed when the emphasis is obvious.

DUPLICATION

In Duplication (Epizeuxis) the same word or phrase is repeated for emphasis, as the “ Verily, verily” of John’s account. A list of the most of them follows in alphabetical order:

Crucify, Luke 23:21; Doctor, Luke 8:24; Eloi, Matt. 27:46, Mark 15:34; how very (See as much as), Heb. 10:37; Jerusalem, Matt. 23:37, Luke 13:34; Lord, Mat 7:21, 22, 25:11, Luke 6:46, 13:25; Martha, Luke 10:41; no, Matt. 5:37, 2 Cor. 1:17; Rabbi, Mark 14:45; Saul, Acts 9:4; Simon, Luke 22:31; verily, John 1:51, 3:3, 5, 11, 5:19, 24, 25, 6:26, 32, 47, 53, 8:34, 51, 58, 10:1, 7, 12:24, 13:16, 20, 21, 38, 16:20, 23, 21:18; yes, Matt. 5:37, 2 Cor. 1:17, James 5:12.

PRONOUN

As the conjugated form of the verb, in the Original, (e.g. kaleõ, I-AM-CALLING) includes the pronoun, it is generally omitted in the Greek. If it is used, it is emplatic. In THE CONCORANT LITERAL NEW TESTAMENT such pronouns are indicated by an accent mark (´). The emphatic pronoun I is especially frequent in John’s account, as in 17:4: I´ glorify Thee on the earth.

IRREGULAR REPETITION

Repetition usually is emphatic even when it occurs irregularly, as Galatians 4:9: turn back again . . . to slave again. See also James 5:7, patient; 5:13, 14, anyone: 1 John 3:5, 8, manifest.

Repetition of phrases (Cycloides) does not differ from words as 1 Corinthians 13:9: out of an instalment.

WORD PLAY

Wordplay (Antanaclasis or Ploke) repeats the same word in a figurative sense, as Matt. 8:22: leave the dead to entomb their own dead. Also world, John 1:10; believe (entrust), John 2:23, 24; above (over),   and of the earth, John 3:31; eat, John 4:31, 32; written, John 19:22; Israel, Romans 9:6.

EXTENDED WORD PLAY

Extended Wordplay (Syncoeceiosis) repeats the expression with a more extended meaning. Thus Paul repeats the word briefly (Acts 26:28, 29).

DERIVATION

Derivation (Paregmenon) repeats the root of a word, but not the sense, as Romans 5:19: disobedience, obedience; Romans 2:l: judging, condemning (DOWN-JUDGing). It can only be found by tracing the word back to the original language.

SOUNDS OR LETTERS

Alliteration (Homoeopropheron) repeats the same letter or sound at the beginning of words.

End Rhyme (Homoeoteluton) repeats the sound at the end of words.

Inflection Rhyme (Homoeoptoton, Paramcoeosis) repeats the same inflection, hence the same sound at the end of words.

USELESS REPETITION

Useless Repetition (Battologia) is the use of the same expression without adding any sense or emphasis (Matt. 6:7, Acts 19:34).

DETAILED REPETITION

Detailing (Prosapodosis) is the repetition of an expression in order to add more detail, as: Rom. 11:22, kindness, severity. See also John 16:8-11, Philipplans 1:15-17.

IDEA

Lingering (Epimone) is the repetition of an idea in order to impress it: Matt. 7:21-23, 15:18-20, Mark 7:20-23, John 21:15-17, Col. 2:14-15.

REPETITION OF THE SENSE

A Double Negative repeats and emphasizes the negation. As this cannot usually be carried over into English, we have rendered it: under no circumstances, by no means, etc. See these in the Concordance.

SENSE

Synonym (Synonymia) is the repetition or overlapping of the sense in a series of expressions, not merely to add to the sense, but to emphasize it. As words are used with the greatest precision in the Scriptures, it is seldom that we can restrict synonyms to this figure, for each word adds to the sense as well as to the emphasis, as a rule. Thus in Mark 12:30 and Luke 10:27: you shall be loving the Lord, your God, out of your whole heart … soul … comprehension … strength. There is overlapping of the sense and heavy emphasis. Other examples are: counsel, foreknowledge, Acts 2:23; gibbet, assassinate, Acts 2:23; kindness, forbearance, patience, Rom. 2:4; glory, honor, incorruption, Rom. 2:7; indignation, fury, affliction, distress, Rom. 2:8-9; glory, honor, peace, Rom. 2:10; guide, light, discipliner, teacher, Rom. 2:19; stumbling stone, snare rock, Rom. 9:33 languages, lips, 1Cot. 14:21; accept, taught, Gal. 1:12; sovereignty, authority, power, lordship, Eph. 1:21; psalms, hymns, spiritual songs, Eph. 5:19, Col. 3:16; learned, accepted, hear, perceived, Phil. 4:9; thrones, lordships, sovereignties, authorities, Col. 1:16; grace, mercy, peace, 1 Tim. 1:2, 2 Tim. 1:2.

IDEAS

Interpretation (Hermeneia) repeats what has been said in other words or in another languaze, as: Emmanuel, God with us. Matt. 1:23; Messiah, Christ, John 1:41. See Matt. 27:46, Mark 5:41, 15:22, 34, John 1:38, Acts 4 ;36, 9:36, 13:8.

MORE THAN ONE WORD OR PHRASE REGULARLY

Intertwining (Symploke) is the repetition of two or more expressions with more or less regularity, as 1 Cor. 15:42-44: It is sown in corruption; it is roused in incorruption. It is sown in dishonor; it is roused in glory. It is sown in infirmity; it is roused in power It is sown a soulish body; it is roused a spiritual body. See also 1 Cor. 12:4-6, 14:15, 2 Cor. 9:6, Rev. 18:21-23.

BEGINNING

Beginning Repetition (Anaphora) repeats the same word at the commencement of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences. It is a simple and effective means of impressing an idea on the mind. Matt. 5:3-11, the so-called beatitudes, is a fine example, for the word “ happy” is repeated nine times; Matt. 11:18, came: Rom. 8:33-34, who; 1Cor. 3:9, God’s; 1 Cor. 6:11, but; 1 Cor. 11:3, head; 1 Cor. 13:7, all; 1 Cor. 13:8, whether; 2 Cor. 7:11, nay; 2 Cor. 11:26, dangers; Eph. 6:12, with; Phil. 3:2, beware; Phil. 4:2, entreating; Phil. 4:8, whatever; 1 John 1:1-3, which.

COMMENCING

Commencing Repetition (Epibole) is the repetition of phrases or sentences (instead of words) at the start of a statement, as: 1 Cor. 6:12, All is allowed me. See also Acts 20:22, 25.

RESUMPTION

Resumption (Epanalepsis) is the repetition of the same word after a line of thought has been broken, See 1 Cor. 10:28, 29, Eph. 3:1, 14.

BEGINNING AND MIDDLE

Beginning and Middle Repetition (Mesarchia): receiving, Matt. 10:40, 41.

BEGINNING AND END

Beginning and End Repetition (Epanadiplosis) repeats the first word or phrase at the end of a sentence or passage. In Luke 12:5 “ be afraid” is repeated at the end of the statement with telling effect. Examples: hear, Mark 7:14-16: watch, 13:35; afraid, Luke 12:5; expectation, Rom. 8:24; Christ, Gal. 2:20; be rejoicing, Phil. 4:4; what is the benefit, Jame 2:14-16: hallelujah, Rev. 19:1-3.

MIDDLE

Middle Repetition (Mesodiplosis) repeats regularly in the center of the sentence, as “ but not” (2 Cor. 4:8-9).

MIDDLE AND END

Middle and End Repetition (Mesoteleuton) repeats at the end what is in the middle, Mark 5:2, 3, tombs.

REPETITION—END

End Repetition (Epistrophe) repeats the same word at the end of each clause, or sentence, as, in Revelation 22:11: Let the injurer injure still: and let the filthy one be filthy still: and let the just one do righteousness still: and let the holy one be hallowed still. Examples: Rom. 8:31, us; Rom. 14:8, living, dying: Rev. 7:5-8.

At the end of an argument it may be specially classified (Epiphoza), as 2 Cor. 11:22, I also.

Refrain (Amoebaeon) is the special name given this figure, when it is poetical, or embraces a full statement, as Rev. 18:21, 22, 22, 23, 23, nevermore, or Rev. 2:7, 11, 17, 29, 3:6, 13, 22, Who has an ear, let him hear what the spirit is saying to the ecclesias. See also Matt. 6:2, 5, 16, and 4, 6, 18; Luke 13:3, 5; John 6:39, 40, 44, 54.

END AND BEGINNING

End and Beginning Repetition (Anadiplosis) repeats the last word of a sentence or phrase in commencing the next, as John 1:14, we gaze at His glory, a glory as of an only begotten . . . (It is not always clear in a translation.) Matt. 7:22, in your name: 10:40, receiving Me; Lake12:5, be afraid: John14:11, the Father: John 18:37, I; Rom. 8:17, enjoyers of allotment; Rom. 9:30, righteousness; 10:17, tidings; 2 Cor. 9:6, sparingly; Phil. 2:8, death; James 1:3-4, endurance.

When this figure is repeated, it is especially impressive, and sometimes named Gradation, as Romans 8:30; these He calls also; and whom He calls, these He justifies also: now whom He justifies, these He glorifies also. See also John 1:1, 1:4, 5, Rom. 5:3-5, 10:14, 15, James 1:3, 4, 14, 15, 2 Pet. 1:5, 7.

MANY ANDS

When each detail of a statement is to be considered for itself, the different items are separated by the conjunction and (Polysyndeton). It should be compared with the opposite figure, NO-ANDS, in which the “ ands” are omitted. When the “ and” occurs only before the last item of a series, there is no figure. A good example is found in Luke 10:27: you shall be loving the Lord, your God, out of your whole heart, and in your whole soul, and with your whole strength, and with your whole comprehension, and your associate as yourself. It occurs frequently.

EITHER . . . OR’s

Either . . . or’s (Paradiastole), when the or (or nor) is unnecessarily repeated, emphasizes each separate item, as Romans 8:38-39: neither death nor life, nor messengers, nor sovereignties, nor the present, nor what is impending, nor powers, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creation. Only the first neither and the last nor are needed for the
sense. The repetition stresses each particular. Examples: Matt. 19 :29, Mark l0:29, Luke 14:12, 18:29, John 1:13, 1 Cor. 3:21-22, 2 Thes. 2:2.

INFLECTIONS

Inflection Repetition (Polyptoten) is a striking feature of the sacred text which is worthy of much study, as it is strange to our language and cannot be idiomatically translated. The only practical course is to carry over the figure and then explain its force. For study we divide the occurrences into various classes. In every case there must be the same stem repeated, but in a different form, as: hearing they may be hearing (Mark 4:12), covenanting a covenant (Luke 22:29), eons of the eons, etc. The mere fact that the same word follows in another grammatical form does not make this figure, however. The occurrences must be mutually related, so as to make a striking combination.

Verb with Participle: bless, Eph. 1:3, Heb. 6:14; multiply, Heb. 6:14; observe, Matt. 13:13, 14, Mark 4:12, Luke 8:10, 10:23, Acts 28:26; perceive, Acts 7:34; hear, Mark 4:12.

Verb with Infinitive: contain, Matt. 19:12; hear, Matt. 11:15, 13:9, 43, Mark 4:9, 23, 7:16, Luke 8:8, 14:35.

Verb with Noun: anathema, Acts 23:14; charge, Acts 5:28; contend, 1 Tim. 6:12, 2 Tim. 4:7; covenant, Luke Z2:29, Heb. 10:16; fear, Mark 4:41; grow, Col. 2:19; hear, Matt. 13:14, Acts 28:26; joy, Matt. 2:10, John 3:29; judge (sentence), Rev. 18:20, leaven, Gal. 5:9; marvel, Rev. 17:6; name, Eph. 1:21; pray, Eph. 6:18, Jas. 5:17; reproach, Rom. 15:3; scorch, Rev. 16:9; shadow, Acts 5:15; stumble, Rom. 9:32; teaching, Matt. 15:9; war, 1 Tim. 1:18; work, John 6:28, 9:4; yearn, Luke 22:15.

Noun with Noun: expectation, Rom. 4:18; heaven, John 3:13; Him, Rom. 11:36; law, Gal. 2:19.

Noun with Genitive: eon of the eon, Heb. 1:8; eon of the eons, Eph. 3:21; eons of the eons, Gal..l:5, Phil. 4:20, 1 Tim. 1:17, Heb. 13:21, 1 Pet.4:ll, 5:11, Rev. 1:6, 18, 4:9, 10, 5:13, 7:12, 10:6, 11:15, 14:11, 15:7, 19:3. 20:10, 22:5; holy of holies, Heb. 9:3; King of kings. 1 Tim. 6:15. Rev. 17:14, 19:16; Lord of lords. 1 Tim. 6:15. Rev. 17:14, 19:16.

PROVERB

A Proverb (Parcemia) repeats a well-known saying. Our Lord used proverbs (John 16:25, 25, 29). Parts of His parables seem to have been of this character (John 10:6). The proverbs of the bathed sow and the cur returning to its vomit complete the list of those actually named in the Scriptures. The others listed may, or may not, be proverbs: thong of sandals, Mark 1:7, Luke 3:16; prophet dishonored, Mark 6:4, John 4:44; salt, Mark 9:50; vultures. Luke 17:37; good out of Nazareth, John 1:46; sheep, John 10:6; goads, Acts26:14; little leaven, 1 Cor. 5:6; stand, fall, 1 Cor. 10:12; all clean to the clean, Titus 1:15; cur and sow, 2 Pet. 2:22.

REFERENCE

Reference (Gnome), including all, from a mere Allusion to an exact Quotation, repeats the words, or sense, of what was previously spoken or written. In The Concordant Literal New Testament these are carefully discriminated. Actual quotations are enclosed in quotation marks, carefully excluding words not in the quoted text. Many passages usually taken as quotations are intentionally left without marks to show that they are not exact repetitions, but. mere references.

FIGURES OF GRAMMATICAL SUBSTITUTION

Grammatical Substitution (Antimereia) consists in the use of one part of speech for another. Even in English the participle, though listed as a verb, is frequently used as a noun, as “ writing.” In Greek this is far more frequent. But the participle is not a pure verb, but rather a verbal adjective; the infinitive is a verbal noun. Hence their use as a noun is not as abnormal as our classification (which places them artificially with verbs) makes them.

VERB

Infinitive for Noun: sight (to-be-looking) Luke 7:21; solution (to-up-loose) Phil 1:23; life (to-be-living) Heb. 2:15; entering (to be into-coming) Heb. 4:1.

Participle for Noun: Matt. 11:3, the coming One. Frequent.

Participle (Passive) for Adjective: self-censured (having-been-down-known, Gal. 2:11).

ADVERB

Adverb for Noun: The word associate is an adverb. With be or become the adverb makes a noun. Examples: John 6:25, Mark 4:10, Acts 5:24, 13:5, Rom. 7:3, 16:7, Eph. 2:13, 2 Thes. 2:7, 2 Tim. 1:17.

Adverb for Adjective: our outward man (the out of-us human) 2 Cor. 4:16. See also 2 Cor. 4:17.

ADJECTIVE

Adjective for Adverb: public(ly) Acts 16:37.

Adjective for Noun: Better classified under Omission, as the noun seems to be understood.

NOUN

Noun for Adverb: In truth, with boldness.

Noun for Adjective: Better classified as Association, which see.

Noun repeated in the genitive for Adjective: This is also better classified under Association, When the first noun is the modified, it is a special figure (Hypallage), as: superabundance (superabounding) Rom. 5:17; law (legal) Rom. 9:31; secret, Eph. 1:9: promise (promised) Heb. 9:15.

Two Nouns, one in the genitive, usually seem to make one an Adjective: Matt. 19:28, throne of glory (glorious throne).

Noun repeated in the Genitive Plural is better classified under Inflected Repetition.

Noun in the dative for Adjective: Acts 7:20 (divinely); 2 Cor. 10:4 (to God).

CASE AND ACCIDENCE SUBSTITUTION

Substitution of Case (Antiptosis), or of Accidence (Meterosis), are sometimes called figures, but it is questionable whether such exist except in errors of transmission, loosehess of translation and inexact interpretation. Heterosis of the gender, however, is quite common. The so-called “ neuter” is used for persons, but, as this is really an indefinite, this is not out of the way. But such terms as mankind, saint, etc., though mascu!ine or feminine in form, take the masculine article. Hence the masculine is used for both genders by this figure.

LOGICAL CONCORD

Logical Concord (Syllepsis). As the grammatical concord is sometimes artificial, the logical may supersede it, as: 2 Cor. 5:19, God was in Christ, conciliating the world to Himself, not reckoning their (the people of the world’s) offenses to them.

NOUN

One in Two (Hendiadys) is the use of two terms joined by and, which merge in such a way that one becomes an intensified modifier. Thus, the province and shadow of death. Matt. 4:16, seems to be the (deeply) shadowed province of death. The following are examples: joy and exultation, Luke 1:14; spirit and power, Luke 1:17; digs and deepens, Luke 6:48: mouth and wisdom, Luke 21:15; expectation and resurrection, Acts 23:6; happy expectation and the glory of the advent, Titus 2:13.

One in Three (Hendiatris) is the same with more added terms. John 14:6: I am the Way and the Truth and the Life. As the question concerns the Way, the added terms may emphasize the fact that He is the true and living way.

VARIANCE

Variance includes a variety of figures in which something else is meant than is literally said, In derision they said of our Lord: Others He saves . . . , but they meant nothing of the sort.

IRONY

Irony (Eironeia) literally means just the opposite of what is intended. It centers chiefly around the cross of Christ, when those who crucified Him called Him king (Matt. 27:29, 37, Mark 15:18, 26, 32, Luke23:38, John 18:39, 19:3, 14, 19, 21), or spoke of Him saving Himself (Luke 23:37, 39), or others (Matt. 27:42, Mark 15:31, Luke 23.:35). Other occurrences: demolishing the temple, Matt. 27:40, Mark 15:29; His confidence in God, Matt. 27:43: the coming of Elijah, Mark 15:36; the Corinthians reigned, 1 Cor. 4:8; you (Teacher) are true, Matt. 22:16; repudiating God’s precept, Mark 7:9; Paul’s injustice, 2 Cor. 12:13.

DOUBLE MEANING

Double Meaning (Amphibologia) is a statement which is both literally and figuratively true, as when the chief priest prophesied that one man should be dying for the sake of the people (John 11:50).

ILLUSION

Illusion is a figure in which the impression made on our senses is stated in place of the actual facts, as: the mariners suspected some country to be nearing them (Acts 27:27).

PROBING

Probing consists in making statements which seem to imply the contrary to the truth, as when our Lord said: Whence should we be buying bread . . . ? (John 6:5), when He was aware that He was about to perform a miracle, yet wished to try Philip. Much of revelation, including the law, is of this nature. so that human inferences are apt to be false. This helps to make all revelation up to Paul’s final unfoldings an Enigma.

WISE-FOLLY

Wise-Folly (Oxymoron) is usua!ly a striking antithesis, made possible by figurative language, as: the stupidity of God is wiser than men (1 Cor. 1:25). The following are examples: light, darkness, Matt. 6:23; (soul) save, destroy, Matt. 16:25, Mark 8:35, Luke 9:24; foremost, slave, Matt. 20:27, Mark 10:44; smaller, great, Luke 9:48; (soul) procure, destroy, Luke 17:33; behind, in front, John 1:15. 27, 30; (soul) fond, destroy, hate, guard, John 12:25; worthy, dishonor, Acts 5:41; stupidity, wiser, 1 Cor. 1:25; weak, disgrace, strong, 1 Cor. 1:27; stupid, disgrace, wise, 1 Cor. 1:27; be stupid to be wise, 1 Cor. 3:18; deceivers, yet true, 2 Cor. 6:8; dying, living, 2 Cor. 6:9; sorrowing, ever rejoicing, 2 Cor. 6:10; poor, enriching, 2 Cor. 6:10; poverty, generosity, 2 Cor. 8:2; less than the least, Eph. 3:8.

BELITTLING

Belittling (Tapeinosis) is the deliberate use of a weak term, in order to express the contrary, as: saying that he is somebody (Acts 5:36), or it often is a negation of the opposite of that which is intended, as: no insignicant city (Acts 21:39). The following are examples: I presume not, Luke 17:9; be somewhat, Gal. 2:6; (Bethlehem) in no respect least, Matt. 2:6; it is not ideal, Matt. 15:26; it is not the will, Matt. 18:14; no slight commotion, Acts 15:2: not measureably consoled, Acts 20:12; not be slothful, Acts 9:38: Paul not stubborn, Acts 26:19; no slight tempest, Acts 27:20; not to be ignorant, Rom. 1:13; not ashamed of evangel, Rom. 1:16; expectation not mortifying, Rom. 5:5: Paul not applauding, 1 Cor. 11:22; we are not ignorant, 2 Cor. 2:11; God not ashamed, Heb. 11:16; I am no widow, Rev. 18:7.

IDIOM

An Idiom (Idioma) is an expression or mannerism, peculiar to a language, which does not convey the proper sense when literally translated. Most of the so-called idioms are merely figures of speech, or unusual expressions, some of which may be transferred from one language into another. Some refer to peculiar customs, hence should be kept, as, “ breaking bread” or “ taking tea.” “ Breaking bread” is the figure of Near Association, for to this day bread is actually broken with meals, and stands for partaking of ordinary food. The phrase, “ three days and three nights” (Matt. 12:40), for that which extends into three days, no matter how little; is nearer a true idiom, for it contains no figure and conveys an idea contrary to its literal meaning. Besides the grammatical idiom and the words, the following may be mentioned: the evilly having (the ill), Mark 1:32; take hold of hand (be patron), Heb. 8:9; voice of mouth, Acts 22:14; open the mouth (speak), Acts 18:14; turn back on the Lord (to the Lord), Acts 11:21; doing time (spending time), Acts 18:23; faith in one another (one another’s faith), Rom. 1:12.

INCONGRUITY Incongruity (Catachresis) is the use of expressions which, strictly taken, are incorrect, yet they set forth a distant relation or even contrast, making a striking impression, as Rev. 1:12: I turn about to look for the voice. They usually include some other figure also. The following may be taken as examples: Matt. 12:5, profaning; Matt. 24:29, powers shaken; Luke 16:17, serif fall; Acts 13:34, faithful benignities; 1 Cor. 1:25, stupidity, weakness: Col. 3:5, deaden members; Heb. 13:15, fruit of the lips.

FIGURES OF RHETORIC

RHETORICAL

Rhetorical Figures deal with the sense and the manner in which, not merely information, but feeling is conveyed. Questions are asked, not to ascertain facts, but to soften the diction. Exclamations are used to intensify the effect. The mode of expression suits the circumstances.

ADJURATION

Adjuration (Deesis) is a calling on others to witness. Paul adjured the Thessalonians, 1 Thess. 2:10.

AFFIRMATION

Affirmation (Affirmatio) is used in insisting on a fact, as: I am rejoicing . . . and will be rejoicing nevertheless, Phil. 1:18.

ANTICIPATION

Anticipation (Prolepsis) answers an argument beforehand, as: persisting in sin that grace should be increasing, Rom. 6:1, 2. See also Matt. 3:9, Rom. 4:1-3, 7:7, 9:6, 14, 15, 19, 10:18, 11:1, 11, 19, 1 Cor. 15:35.

Also used of mentioning beforehand or predicting, as when Herod locks John up in jail in the midst of the account of his baptizing, Luke 3:19, 20. See also Heb. 2:8.

APOSTROPHE

Apostrophe turns from the impersonal to direct address, either general, as: Whence are battles . . . among you? James 4:1-6; or individual, as, Who are you? Rom. 9:20, 14:4; you are, Gal. 4:7; noting yourself, Gal. 6:1; or a class, as: you are . . . a Jew, Rom. 2:17; you, the nations, Rom. 11:13; O wife, 1 Cor. 7:16.

BLESSING

Blessing (Benedictio) is the ascription of bliss, as: Blessed is He Who is coming in the name of the Lord, Luke 13:35, Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, Eph.1:3.

BOLDNESS

Boldness (Elautheria), or candor, is speech without restraint, such as should be used in the things of God. See the word boldness in the Concordance.

CAUSE SHOWN

Cause Shown (Aetiologia) gives the reason for a statement, as: I am not ashamed of the evangel, for it is God’s power for salvation, Rom. 1:16. Frequent.

COMMON CAUSE

Common Cause (Anacoenosis) is an appeal to others with common interests, as: your sons . . . they shall be your judges, Luke 11:19; . . . judge you, Acts 4:19, 1 Cor. 10:15, 11:13; What are you wanting? 1 Cor. 4:21; Tell me . . . Gal. 4:21.

CONCESSION

Concession (Synchoresls) grants one point in order to make another, as: And would that you surely reign, that we also should be reigning with you, 1 Cor. 4:8. See also Rom. 2:17-23; 2 Cor. 10:1; Gal. 4:15; James 2:19.

CONCILIATION

Conciliation (Protherapeia) is a preparatory ingratiating statement, as calling our Lord “ Teacher,” Matt. 19:16, Mark10:17, Luke 18:18, John3:2. See also Acts 17:22, 22:3, 26:3.

CORRECTION

Correction (Epanorthosls) is a statement made to accord with the facts, as: I am believing ! lielp my unbelief, Mark 9:24. See also Ivlf, t. 11:9, Rom. 14:14, John 12:27, 16:32, Acts 26:27, Rom. 14:4, I Cor. 7:10, 15:10, Gal. 1:6, 2:20, 3:4, 4:9.

DOUBLE CORRECTION

Double Correction (Amphidiorthosis) deals with both sides, as: Shall I be applauding you in this? I am not applauding, 1 Cor. 11:22.

COUNTER-BLAME

Counter-Blame (Metastasis) transfers the blame from one to another, as: the law is spiritual, yet I am fleshly, Rom. 7:14.

COUNTER-QUESTION

Counter-Question (Anteisagoge) answers one question by asking another, as our Lord did when they questioned His authority, Matt. 21:24, Mark 11:29. See also Matt. 15:2, 3, Mark 2:25, Rom. 9:20.

DETESTATION

Detestation (Apodioxis) is a rejection with horror, as: Go away, Satan, Mat 4:10. See also Matt. 16:23, Acts 8:20, Phil, 3:8.

DIALOGUE

Dialogue (Antimetathesis) brings in one or more speakers, as when the nations say: Boughs are broken out that I may be grafted in, Rom. 11:19, 1 Cor. 15:35.

DIGRESSION

Digression (Parecbasis) is a strong term of Parenthesia, a stepping aside to examine a different, but related, subject, as 1 Cor. 15:20-28.

DOUBT

Doubt (Aporia) is the expression of uncertainty, as: What shall I be doing? Luke 16:3. See Matt. 21:25, 26.

EXCLAMATION

Exclamation (Ecphonesis) consists in words or sentences evidently uttered with strong feeling, as: O generation, unbelieving and perverse! Matt. 17:17. As it is followed by an exclamation point, it is easily distinguished.

EXHORTATION

Exhortation (Paraeneticon) or entreaty calls for becoming conduct, as: I am entreating you . . . to present your bodies . . . Rom. 12:1. See the word entreat in the Concordance for examples..

EXULTATION

Exultation (Paeanismos) calls for rejoicing, as: Be rejoicing in the Lord always! Again, I will declare, be rejoicing! Phil. 4:4. See 2 Cor. 13:11, Phil. 2:18, 3:1, James 1:1, 1 Pet. 4:13, Rev. 18:20.

HAPPINESS

Happiness (Beatitudo) is the statement (rather than wish) that certain will possess it, as: Happy is he who is not judging himself in that which he is attesting, Rom. 14:22. Frequent. See the word happy in the Concordance.

IGNORING

Ignoring (Accismus) is an apparent refusal (Matt. 15:23) or silence (Matt. 27:12, 14).

IMPRECATION

Imprecation (Maledictio) is the denunciation with a curse, as: Woe to me if I should not be bringing the evangel! 1 Cor. 9:16. See the word woe in the Concordance.

INCLUSION

Inclusion associates the speaker or writer with those addressed, as: they (nations) grope for Him . . . not far from each one of us, Acts 17:27.

INDICATION

Indication (Asterismos) points out a passage by means of special words, as: lo, verily, yea or yes.

INDIGNATION

Indignation (Aganactesis) is an expression conveying strong condemnation, as: Progeny of vipers! Matt. 3:7, 12:34, 23:33, Luke 3:7; Serpent! Matt. 23:33, Acts 13:10.

INTERROGATION

Interrogation (Erotesis) is a statement in the form of a question. Often, in the Scriptures, a question is put, not for information, but to suggest, rather than to state, the self-evident answer, as: Where is the wise? 1 Cor. 1:20. It must be remembered that the question marks, in a translation, are not inspired. There is no indication of a question in the Greek except the context.

MOCKING

Mocking (Chleuasmos) gives expression to sneers and jeers, as: Others he saves! Himself he cannot save! If he is king of Israel, let him descend . . . (Matt. 27:42). See Luke 16:16.

NEGATION

Negation (Negatio) is used in denying the opposite of the affirmative desire, as: not even for an hour do we simulate by subjection (Gal. 2:5).

PATHOS

Pathos (Pathopoeia) is the expression of strong feeling, such as love or hatred, joy or sorrow, as when our Lord laments (Luke 19:41) and groans (Mark 7:34), or is indignant (Mark 3:5), or resents (Mark 10:14), or Paul has affliction and pressure of heart (2 Cor. 2:4) and is travailing (Gal. 4:19), or is refreshed (2 Tim. 1:16), or others are harrowed and gnash their teeth (Acts 7:54, 57).

PRAYER

Prayer (Euche) is the expression of a wish or desire to God, as Paul to Agrippa (Acts 26:29). It is much used by Paul, as in Ephesians 1:3, 16, 3:14, etc. See the words pray and prayer in a Concordance.

QUESTIONABLE ASSERTION

Questionable Assertion is a direct statement intended as a question, as: You are the King of the Jews? Matt. 27:11, Mark 15:2, Luke 23:3, John 18:33; You are not hearing . . . ? Matt. 27:13; You are not answering anything? Mark 15:4; A King are you? John 18:37.

RAILLERY

Raillery (Diasyrmos) a tearing away of a disguise, as when our Lord said to Judas: Comrade, for what are you. present? Matt. 26:50.

©1970 Concordant Publishing Concern
From The Keyword Concordance, Companion Volume To The Concordant Literal New Testament